Bewise Inc. www.tool-tool.com Reference source from the internet.
英文名称：graphite
分子式：C
分子量：12.01
CAS 登录号：7782-42-5
EINECS 登录号：231-955-3
碳是一种非金属元素，位于元素周期表的第二周期IVA族。拉丁语为Carbonium，意为“煤，木炭”。汉字“碳”字由木炭的“炭”字加石字旁构成，从“炭”字音。
碳是一种很常见的元素，它以多种形式广泛存在于大气和地壳之中。碳单质很早就被人认识和利用，碳的一系列化合物——有机物更是生命的根本。碳是生铁、熟铁和钢的成分之一。 碳能在化学上自我结合而形成大量化合物，在生物上和商业上是重要的分子。生物体内大多数分子都含有碳元素。
碳化合物一般从化石燃料中获得，然后再分离并进一步合成出各种生产生活所需的产品，如乙烯、塑料等。
碳的存在形式是多种多样的，有晶态单质碳如金刚石、石墨；有无定形碳如煤；有复杂的有机化合物如动植物等；碳酸盐如大理石等。 单质碳的物理和化学性质取决于它的晶体结构。高硬度的金刚石和柔软滑腻的石墨晶体结构不同，各有各的外观、密度、熔点等。
常温下单质碳的化学性质比较稳定，不溶于水、稀酸、稀碱和有机 溶剂；不同高温下与氧反应，生成二氧化碳或一氧化碳；在卤素中只有氟能与单质碳直接反应；在加热下，单质碳较易被酸氧化；在高温下，碳还能与许多金属反 应，生成金属碳化物。碳具有还原性，在高温下可以冶炼金属。
石墨是碳质元素结晶矿物，它的结晶格架为六边形层状结构。每一网层间的距离为3.40人，同一网层中碳原子的间距为1．42A。属六方晶系，具完整的层状解理。解理面以分子键为主，对分子吸引力较弱，故其天然可浮性很好。
石墨与金刚石、碳60、碳纳米管等都是碳元素的单质,它们互为同素异形体.
山东省莱西市为我国石墨重要产地之一,石墨探明储量687.11万吨，现保有储量639.93万吨.
石墨质软，黑灰色；有油腻感，可污染纸张。硬度为1～2，沿垂直方向随杂质的增加其硬度可增至3～5。比重为1．9～2．3。比表面积范围集中在1-20m2/g，在隔绝氧气条件下，其熔点在3000℃以上，是最耐温的矿物之一。
自然界中纯净的石墨是没有的，其中往往含有SiO2、Al2O3、FeO、CaO、P2O5、CuO等杂质。这些杂质常以石英、黄铁矿、碳酸盐等矿物形式出现。此外，还有水、沥青、CO2、H2、CH4、N2等气体部分。因此对石墨的分析，除测定固定碳含量外，还必须同时测定挥发分和灰分的含量。
石墨的工艺特性主要决定于它的结晶形态。结晶形态不同的石墨矿物，具有不同的工业价值和用途。工业上，根据结晶形态不同，将天然石墨分为三类。
1．致密结晶状石墨
致密结晶状石墨又叫块状石墨。此类石墨结晶明显晶体肉眼可见。 颗粒直径大于0．1毫米，比表面积范围集中在0.1-1m2/g，晶体排列杂乱无章，呈致密块状构造。这种：石墨的特点是品位很高，一般含碳量为 60～65％，有时达80～98％，但其可塑性和滑腻性不如鳞片石墨好.
2．鳞片石墨
鳞片石墨
石墨晶体呈鳞片 状；这是在高强度的压力下变质而成的，有大鳞片和细鳞片之分。此类石墨矿石的特点是品位不高，一般在2～3％，或100～25％之间。是自然界中可浮性最 好的矿石之一，经过多磨多选可得高品位石墨精矿。这类石墨的可浮性、润滑性、可塑性均比其他类型石墨优越；因此它的工业价值最大。
3．隐晶质石墨
隐晶质石墨
隐品质石墨又称 非晶质石墨或土状石墨，这种石墨的晶体直径一般小于1微米，比表面积范围集中在1-5m2/g，是微晶石墨的集合体，只有在电子显微镜下才能见到晶形。此 类石墨的特点是表面呈土状，缺乏光泽，润滑性也差。品位较高。一般的60～80％。少数高达90％以上。矿石可选性较差。
石墨在工业上运用极广，几乎每个行业都会用到。工业上多用的是人造石墨，也就是特种石墨。按其成型的方式可分为以下几种。
1、等静压石墨。也就是很多人叫的三高石墨，但是并不是三高就是等静压。
2、模压石墨
3、挤压石墨，多为电极材料。
其中按石墨的颗粒度分，也可分为：细节构石墨、中粗石墨（一般的颗粒度在0.8mm左右）、还有就是电极石墨（2-4mm）。
石墨由于其特殊结构，而具有如下特殊性质：
1） 耐高温型：石墨的熔点为3850±50℃，沸点为4250℃，即使经超高温电弧灼烧，重量的损失很小，热膨胀系数也很小。石墨强度随温度提高而加强，在2000℃时，石墨强度提高一倍。
2） 导电、导热性：石墨的导电性比一般非金属矿高一百倍。导热性超过钢、铁、铅等金属材料。导热系数随温度升高而降低，甚至在极高的温度下，石墨成绝热体。 石墨能够导电是因为石墨中每个碳原子与其他碳原子只形成3个共价键,每个碳原子仍然保留1个自由电子来传输电荷.
3） 润滑性：石墨的润滑性能取决于石墨鳞片的大小，鳞片越大，摩擦系数越小，润滑性能越好。
4） 化学稳定性：石墨在常温下有良好的化学稳定性，能耐酸、耐碱和耐有机溶剂的腐蚀。
5） 可塑性：石墨的韧性好，可碾成很薄的薄片。
6） 抗热震性：石墨在常温下使用时能经受住温度的剧烈变化而不致破坏，温度突变时，石墨的体积变化不大，不会产生裂纹。
名字来源：源于希腊文“graphein”，意为“用来写”。由德国化学家和矿物学家A. G. Werner 于1789命名；
化学组成：成分纯净者极少，往往含各种杂质；
类别：自然元素-非金属元素-碳族
晶系和空间群：六方晶系，P63/mmm；
晶胞参数:a0=0.246nm，c0=0.670nm；
形态：单晶体常呈片状或板状，但完整的很少见。集合体通常为鳞片状，块状和土状；
颜色：铁黑色；
条痕：光亮黑色
透明度：不透明
光泽：呈半金属光泽
硬度：1-2
解理和断口：平行解理极完全；
比重：2.21-2.26g/cm3
比表面积：5-10m2/g
其他性质：薄片具挠性，有滑感，易污手，具有良好的导电性；
鉴定特征铁黑色，硬度低，一组极完全解理，有滑感和染手；
成因和产状：石墨是在高温下形成。分布最广是石墨的变质矿床，系由富含有机质或碳质的沉积岩经区域变质作用而成；
主要用途：石墨在工业上用途很广，用于制作冶炼上的高温坩埚、 机械工业的润滑剂、制作电极和铅笔芯；广泛用于冶金工业的高级耐火材料与涂料、军事工业火工材料安定剂、轻工业的铅笔芯、电气工业的碳刷、电池工业的电 极、化肥工业催化剂等。鳞片石墨经过深加工，又可生产出石墨乳、石墨密封材料与复合材料、石墨制品、石墨减磨添加剂等高新技术产品，成为各个工业部门的重 要非金属矿物原料
石墨新用途：
随着科学技术的不断发展，人们对石墨也开发了许多新用途。
柔性石墨制品。柔性石墨又称膨胀石墨，是年代开发的一种新的石墨制品。
年美国研究成功柔性石墨密封材料，解决了原子能阀门泄漏问题，随后德、日、法也
开始研制生产。这种产品除具有天然石墨所具有的特性外，还具有特殊的柔性和弹性。
因此，是一种理想的密封材料。广泛用于石油化工、原子能等工业领域。国际市场需求
量逐年增长。
著名产地：纽约Ticonderoga，马达加斯加和Ceylon，我国以黑龙江鸡西市柳毛为最大的产地。
石墨粉里“飞”出金刚石
提起钻石，人们就会联想到光彩夺目、闪烁耀眼的情景，它随着拥 有者的活动而光芒四射。但因它的昂贵价格，大多数人只能望而却步。尽管如此，人们对钻石还是很向往的。你知道钻石是什么吗？它的化学成分是碳(C)，天然 的钻石是由金刚石经过琢磨后才能称之谓“钻石”。天然的钻石是非常稀少的，世界上重量大于1000克拉(１克=５克拉)的钻石只有２粒，400克拉以上的 钻石只有多粒，我国迄今为止发现的最大的金刚石重158.786克拉，这就是“常林钻石”。物以稀为贵，正因为可做“钻石“用的天然金刚石很罕见，人们就 想“人造“金刚石来代替它，这就自然地想到了金刚石的“孪生“兄弟--石墨了。
金刚石和石墨的化学成分都是碳(C)，称“同素异形体”。从这种称呼可以知道它们具有相同的“质”，但“形”或“性”却不同，且有天壤之别，金刚石是目前最硬的物质，而石墨却是最软的物质之一。
石墨和金刚石的硬度差别如此之大，但人们还是希望能用人工合成 方法来获取金刚石，因为自然界中石墨(碳)藏量是很丰富的。但是要使石墨中的碳变成金刚石那样排列的碳，不是那么容易的。石墨在5-6万大气压 （（5-6）×103MPa）及摄氏1000至2000度高温下，再用金属铁、钴、镍等做催化剂，可使石墨转变成金刚石。
目前世界上已有十几个国家（包括我国）均合成出了金刚石。但这种金刚石因为颗粒很细，主要用途是做磨料，用于切削和地质、石油的钻井用的钻头。当前，世界金刚石的消费中，80%的人造金刚石主要是用于工业，它的产量也远远超过天然金刚石的产量。
最初合成的金刚石颗粒呈黑色，0.5mm大小，重约0.1克拉 （用于宝石的金刚石一般最小不能小于0.1克拉）。现在我国研制的大颗粒金刚石达3mm以上，美国、日本等已制成6.1克拉多的金刚石。我们说金刚石已从 石墨中“飞”出，
石墨何以能取代铜？
20世纪60年代，铜作为电极材料被广泛应用，使用率约占 90％，石墨仅有10％左右；21世纪，越来越多的用户开始选择石墨作为电极材料，在欧洲，超过90％以上的电极材料是石墨。铜，这种曾经占统治地位的电 极材料，和石墨电极相比它的优势几乎消失殆尽。是什么导致了这个戏剧性的变化？当然是石墨电极的诸多优势。
（1）加工速度更快：通常情况下，石墨的机械加工速度能比铜快2~5倍；而放电加工速度比铜快2~3倍；
材料更不容易变形：在薄筋电极的加工上优势明显；铜的软化点在1000度左右，容易因受热而产生变形；石墨的升华温度为3650度；热膨胀系数仅有铜的1/30。
（2）重量更轻：石墨的密度只有铜的1/5，大型电极进行放电加工时，能有效降低机床（EDM）的负担；更适合于在大型模具上的应用。
（3）放电消耗更小；由于火花油中也含有C原子，在放电加工时，高温导致火花油中的C原子被分解出来，转而在石墨电极的表面形成保护膜，补偿了石墨电极的损耗。
（4）没有毛刺；铜电极在加工完成后，还需手工进行修整以去除毛刺，而石墨加工后没有毛刺，节约了大量成本，同时更容易实现自动化生产；
（5）石墨更容易研磨和抛光；由于石墨的切削阻力只有铜的1/5，更容易进行手工的研磨和抛光；
（6）材料成本更低，价格更稳定；由于近几年铜价上涨，如今各向同性石墨的价格比铜更低，相同体积下，东洋炭素的普遍性石墨产品的价格比铜的价格低30％～60％，并且价格更稳定，短期价格波动非常小。
正是这种无可比拟的优势，石墨逐渐取代铜成为EDM电极的首选材料
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2010年10月21日 星期四
Raman spectroscopy www.tool-tool.com
Bewise Inc. www.tool-tool.com Reference source from the internet.
Raman spectroscopy (named after C. V. Raman, pronounced /ˈrɑːmən/) is a spectroscopic technique used to study vibrational, rotational, and other low-frequency modes in a system. It relies on inelastic scattering, or Raman scattering, of monochromatic light, usually from a laser in the visible, near infrared, or near ultraviolet range. The laser light interacts with molecular vibrations, phonons or other excitations in the system, resulting in the energy of the laser photons being shifted up or down. The shift in energy gives information about the phonon modes in the system. Infrared spectroscopy yields similar, but complementary, information.
Typically, a sample is illuminated with a laser beam. Light from the illuminated spot is collected with a lens and sent through a monochromator. Wavelengths close to the laser line, due to elastic Rayleigh scattering, are filtered out while the rest of the collected light is dispersed onto a detector.
Spontaneous Raman scattering is typically very weak, and as a result the main difficulty of Raman spectroscopy is separating the weak inelastically scattered light from the intense Rayleigh scattered laser light. Historically, Raman spectrometers used holographic gratings and multiple dispersion stages to achieve a high degree of laser rejection. In the past, photomultipliers were the detectors of choice for dispersive Raman setups, which resulted in long acquisition times. However, modern instrumentation almost universally employs notch or edge filters for laser rejection and spectrographs (either axial transmissive (AT), Czerny-Turner (CT) monochromator) or FT (Fourier transform spectroscopy based), and CCD detectors.
There are a number of advanced types of Raman spectroscopy, including surface-enhanced Raman, tip-enhanced Raman, polarised Raman, stimulated Raman (analogous to stimulated emission), transmission Raman, spatially-offset Raman, and hyper Raman.
The Raman effect occurs when light impinges upon a molecule and interacts with the electron cloud and the bonds of that molecule. For the spontaneous Raman effect, which is a form of scattering, a photon excites the molecule from the ground state to a virtual energy state. When the molecule relaxes it emits a photon and it returns to a different rotational or vibrational state. The difference in energy between the original state and this new state leads to a shift in the emitted photon's frequency away from the excitation wavelength. The Raman effect, which is a light scattering phenomenon, should not be confused with absorption (as with fluorescence) where the molecule is excited to a discrete (not virtual) energy level.
If the final vibrational state of the molecule is more energetic than the initial state, then the emitted photon will be shifted to a lower frequency in order for the total energy of the system to remain balanced. This shift in frequency is designated as a Stokes shift. If the final vibrational state is less energetic than the initial state, then the emitted photon will be shifted to a higher frequency, and this is designated as an Anti-Stokes shift. Raman scattering is an example of inelastic scattering because of the energy transfer between the photons and the molecules during their interaction.
A change in the molecular polarization potential — or amount of deformation of the electron cloud — with respect to the vibrational coordinate is required for a molecule to exhibit a Raman effect. The amount of the polarizability change will determine the Raman scattering intensity. The pattern of shifted frequencies is determined by the rotational and vibrational states of the sample.
Although the inelastic scattering of light was predicted by Adolf Smekal in 1923, it is not until 1928 that it was observed in practice. The Raman effect was named after one of its discoverers, the Indian scientist Sir C. V. Raman who observed the effect by means of sunlight (1928, together with K. S. Krishnan and independently by Grigory Landsberg and Leonid Mandelstam) Raman won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1930 for this discovery accomplished using sunlight, a narrow band photographic filter to create monochromatic light and a "crossed" filter to block this monochromatic light. He found that light of changed frequency passed through the "crossed" filter.
Systematic pioneering theory of the Raman effect was developed by Czechoslovak physicist George Placzek between 1930 and 1934.The mercury arc became the principal light source, first with photographic detection and then with spectrophotometric detection. At the present time, lasers are used as light sources.
Raman spectra are typically expressed in wavenumbers, which have units of inverse length. In order to convert between spectral wavelength and wavenumbers of shift in the Raman spectrum, the following formula can be used:
where Δw is the Raman shift expressed in wavenumber, λ0 is the excitation wavelength, and λ1 is the Raman spectrum wavelength. Most commonly, the units chosen for expressing wavenumber in Raman spectra is inverse centimeters (cm-1). Since wavelength is often expressed in units of nanometers (nm), the formula above can scale for this units conversion explicitly, giving
Raman spectroscopy is commonly used in chemistry, since vibrational information is specific to the chemical bonds and symmetry of molecules. Therefore, it provides a fingerprint by which the molecule can be identified. For instance, the vibrational frequencies of SiO, Si2O2, and Si3O3 were identified and assigned on the basis of normal coordinate analyses using infrared and Raman spectra.The fingerprint region of organic molecules is in the (wavenumber) range 500–2000 cm−1. Another way that the technique is used to study changes in chemical bonding, e.g., when a substrate is added to an enzyme.
Raman gas analyzers have many practical applications. For instance, they are used in medicine for real-time monitoring of anaesthetic and respiratory gas mixtures during surgery.
In solid state physics, spontaneous Raman spectroscopy is used to, among other things, characterize materials, measure temperature, and find the crystallographic orientation of a sample. As with single molecules, a given solid material has characteristic phonon modes that can help an experimenter identify it. In addition, Raman spectroscopy can be used to observe other low frequency excitations of the solid, such as plasmons, magnons, and superconducting gap excitations. The spontaneous Raman signal gives information on the population of a given phonon mode in the ratio between the Stokes (downshifted) intensity and anti-Stokes (upshifted) intensity.
Raman scattering by an anisotropic crystal gives information on the crystal orientation. The polarization of the Raman scattered light with respect to the crystal and the polarization of the laser light can be used to find the orientation of the crystal, if the crystal structure (to be specific, its point group) is known.
Raman active fibers, such as aramid and carbon, have vibrational modes that show a shift in Raman frequency with applied stress. Polypropylene fibers also exhibit similar shifts. The radial breathing mode is a commonly used technique to evaluate the diameter of carbon nanotubes. In nanotechnology, a Raman microscope can be used to analyze nanowires to better understand the composition of the structures.
Spatially-offset Raman spectroscopy (SORS), which is less sensitive to surface layers than conventional Raman, can be used to discover counterfeit drugs without opening their internal packaging, and for non-invasive monitoring of biological tissue. Raman spectroscopy can be used to investigate the chemical composition of historical documents such as the Book of Kells and contribute to knowledge of the social and economic conditions at the time the documents were produced. This is especially helpful because Raman spectroscopy offers a non-invasive way to determine the best course of preservation or conservation treatment for such materials.
Raman spectroscopy is being investigated as a means to detect explosives for airport security.
Raman spectroscopy has also been used to confirm the prediction of existence of low-frequency phonons in proteins and DNA (see, e.g., greatly stimulating the studies of low-frequency collective motion in proteins and DNA and their biological functions.
Raman spectroscopy offers several advantages for microscopic analysis. Since it is a scattering technique, specimens do not need to be fixed or sectioned. Raman spectra can be collected from a very small volume (< 1 µm in diameter); these spectra allow the identification of species present in that volume. Water does not generally interfere with Raman spectral analysis. Thus, Raman spectroscopy is suitable for the microscopic examination of minerals, materials such as polymers and ceramics, cells and proteins. A Raman microscope begins with a standard optical microscope, and adds an excitation laser, a monochromator, and a sensitive detector (such as a charge-coupled device (CCD), or photomultiplier tube (PMT)). FT-Raman has also been used with microscopes.
In direct imaging, the whole field of view is examined for scattering over a small range of wavenumbers (Raman shifts). For instance, a wavenumber characteristic for cholesterol could be used to record the distribution of cholesterol within a cell culture.
The other approach is hyperspectral imaging or chemical imaging, in which thousands of Raman spectra are acquired from all over the field of view. The data can then be used to generate images showing the location and amount of different components. Taking the cell culture example, a hyperspectral image could show the distribution of cholesterol, as well as proteins, nucleic acids, and fatty acids. Sophisticated signal- and image-processing techniques can be used to ignore the presence of water, culture media, buffers, and other interferents.
Raman microscopy, and in particular confocal microscopy, has very high spatial resolution. For example, the lateral and depth resolutions were 250 nm and 1.7 µm, respectively, using a confocal Raman microspectrometer with the 632.8 nm line from a Helium-Neon laser with a pinhole of 100 µm diameter. Since the objective lenses of microscopes focus the laser beam to several micrometres in diameter, the resulting photon flux is much higher than achieved in conventional Raman setups. This has the added benefit of enhanced fluorescence quenching. However, the high photon flux can also cause sample degradation, and for this reason some setups require a thermally conducting substrate (which acts as a heat sink) in order to mitigate this process.
By using Raman microspectroscopy, in vivo time- and space-resolved Raman spectra of microscopic regions of samples can be measured. As a result, the fluorescence of water, media, and buffers can be removed. Consequently in vivo time- and space-resolved Raman spectroscopy is suitable to examine proteins, cells and organs.
Raman microscopy for biological and medical specimens generally uses near-infrared (NIR) lasers (785 nm diodes and 1064 nm Nd:YAG are especially common). This reduces the risk of damaging the specimen by applying higher energy wavelengths. However, the intensity of NIR Raman is low (owing to the ω4 dependence of Raman scattering intensity), and most detectors required very long collection times. Recently, more sensitive detectors have become available, making the technique better suited to general use. Raman microscopy of inorganic specimens, such as rocks and ceramics and polymers, can use a broader range of excitation wavelengths.
The polarization of the Raman scattered light also contains useful information. This property can be measured using (plane) polarized laser excitation and a polarization analyzer. Spectra acquired with the analyzer set at both perpendicular and parallel to the excitation plane can be used to calculate the depolarization ratio. Study of the technique is useful in teaching the connections between group theory, symmetry, Raman activity, and peaks in the corresponding Raman spectra.
The spectral information arising from this analysis gives insight into molecular orientation and vibrational symmetry. In essence, it allows the user to obtain valuable information relating to the molecular shape, for example in synthetic chemistry or polymorph analysis. It is often used to understand macromolecular orientation in crystal lattices, liquid crystals or polymer samples.
Several variations of Raman spectroscopy have been developed. The usual purpose is to enhance the sensitivity (e.g., surface-enhanced Raman), to improve the spatial resolution (Raman microscopy), or to acquire very specific information (resonance Raman).
• Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS) - Normally done in a silver or gold colloid or a substrate containing silver or gold. Surface plasmons of silver and gold are excited by the laser, resulting in an increase in the electric fields surrounding the metal. Given that Raman intensities are proportional to the electric field, there is large increase in the measured signal (by up to 1011). This effect was originally observed by Martin Fleischmann but the prevailing explanation was proposed by Van Duyne in 1977.
• Resonance Raman spectroscopy - The excitation wavelength is matched to an electronic transition of the molecule or crystal, so that vibrational modes associated with the excited electronic state are greatly enhanced. This is useful for studying large molecules such as polypeptides, which might show hundreds of bands in "conventional" Raman spectra. It is also useful for associating normal modes with their observed frequency shifts.
• Surface-Enhanced Resonance Raman Spectroscopy (SERRS) - A combination of SERS and resonance Raman spectroscopy that uses proximity to a surface to increase Raman intensity, and excitation wavelength matched to the maximum absorbance of the molecule being analysed.
• Hyper Raman - A non-linear effect in which the vibrational modes interact with the second harmonic of the excitation beam. This requires very high power, but allows the observation of vibrational modes that are normally "silent". It frequently relies on SERS-type enhancement to boost the sensitivity.
• Spontaneous Raman Spectroscopy - Used to study the temperature dependence of the Raman spectra of molecules.
• Optical Tweezers Raman Spectroscopy (OTRS) - Used to study individual particles, and even biochemical processes in single cells trapped by optical tweezers.
• Stimulated Raman Spectroscopy - A spatially coincedent, two color pulse (with polarization either parallel or perpendicular) transfers the population from ground to a rovibrationally excited state, if the difference in energy corresponds to an allowed Raman transition, and if neither frequency corresponds to an electronic resonance. Two photon UV ionization, applied after the population transfer but before relaxation, allows the intra-molecular or inter-molecular Raman spectrum of a gas or molecular cluster (indeed, a given conformation of molecular cluster) to be collected. This is a useful molecular dynamics technique.
• Spatially Offset Raman Spectroscopy (SORS) - The Raman scatter is collected from regions laterally offset away from the excitation laser spot, leading to significantly lower contributions from the surface layer than with traditional Raman spectroscopy.
• Coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy (CARS) - Two laser beams are used to generate a coherent anti-Stokes frequency beam, which can be enhanced by resonance.
• Raman optical activity (ROA) - Measures vibrational optical activity by means of a small difference in the intensity of Raman scattering from chiral molecules in right- and left-circularly polarized incident light or, equivalently, a small circularly polarized component in the scattered light.
• Transmission Raman - Allows probing of a significant bulk of a turbid material, such as powders, capsules, living tissue, etc. It was largely ignored following investigations in the late 1960s[21] but was rediscovered in 2006 as a means of rapid assay of pharmaceutical dosage forms.[22] There are also medical diagnostic applications.
• Inverse Raman spectroscopy.
• Tip-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (TERS) - Uses a metallic (usually silver-/gold-coated AFM or STM) tip to enhance the Raman signals of molecules situated in its vicinity. The spatial resolution is approximately the size of the tip apex (20-30 nm). TERS has been shown to have sensitivity down to the single molecule level.
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Raman spectroscopy (named after C. V. Raman, pronounced /ˈrɑːmən/) is a spectroscopic technique used to study vibrational, rotational, and other low-frequency modes in a system. It relies on inelastic scattering, or Raman scattering, of monochromatic light, usually from a laser in the visible, near infrared, or near ultraviolet range. The laser light interacts with molecular vibrations, phonons or other excitations in the system, resulting in the energy of the laser photons being shifted up or down. The shift in energy gives information about the phonon modes in the system. Infrared spectroscopy yields similar, but complementary, information.
Typically, a sample is illuminated with a laser beam. Light from the illuminated spot is collected with a lens and sent through a monochromator. Wavelengths close to the laser line, due to elastic Rayleigh scattering, are filtered out while the rest of the collected light is dispersed onto a detector.
Spontaneous Raman scattering is typically very weak, and as a result the main difficulty of Raman spectroscopy is separating the weak inelastically scattered light from the intense Rayleigh scattered laser light. Historically, Raman spectrometers used holographic gratings and multiple dispersion stages to achieve a high degree of laser rejection. In the past, photomultipliers were the detectors of choice for dispersive Raman setups, which resulted in long acquisition times. However, modern instrumentation almost universally employs notch or edge filters for laser rejection and spectrographs (either axial transmissive (AT), Czerny-Turner (CT) monochromator) or FT (Fourier transform spectroscopy based), and CCD detectors.
There are a number of advanced types of Raman spectroscopy, including surface-enhanced Raman, tip-enhanced Raman, polarised Raman, stimulated Raman (analogous to stimulated emission), transmission Raman, spatially-offset Raman, and hyper Raman.
The Raman effect occurs when light impinges upon a molecule and interacts with the electron cloud and the bonds of that molecule. For the spontaneous Raman effect, which is a form of scattering, a photon excites the molecule from the ground state to a virtual energy state. When the molecule relaxes it emits a photon and it returns to a different rotational or vibrational state. The difference in energy between the original state and this new state leads to a shift in the emitted photon's frequency away from the excitation wavelength. The Raman effect, which is a light scattering phenomenon, should not be confused with absorption (as with fluorescence) where the molecule is excited to a discrete (not virtual) energy level.
If the final vibrational state of the molecule is more energetic than the initial state, then the emitted photon will be shifted to a lower frequency in order for the total energy of the system to remain balanced. This shift in frequency is designated as a Stokes shift. If the final vibrational state is less energetic than the initial state, then the emitted photon will be shifted to a higher frequency, and this is designated as an Anti-Stokes shift. Raman scattering is an example of inelastic scattering because of the energy transfer between the photons and the molecules during their interaction.
A change in the molecular polarization potential — or amount of deformation of the electron cloud — with respect to the vibrational coordinate is required for a molecule to exhibit a Raman effect. The amount of the polarizability change will determine the Raman scattering intensity. The pattern of shifted frequencies is determined by the rotational and vibrational states of the sample.
Although the inelastic scattering of light was predicted by Adolf Smekal in 1923, it is not until 1928 that it was observed in practice. The Raman effect was named after one of its discoverers, the Indian scientist Sir C. V. Raman who observed the effect by means of sunlight (1928, together with K. S. Krishnan and independently by Grigory Landsberg and Leonid Mandelstam) Raman won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1930 for this discovery accomplished using sunlight, a narrow band photographic filter to create monochromatic light and a "crossed" filter to block this monochromatic light. He found that light of changed frequency passed through the "crossed" filter.
Systematic pioneering theory of the Raman effect was developed by Czechoslovak physicist George Placzek between 1930 and 1934.The mercury arc became the principal light source, first with photographic detection and then with spectrophotometric detection. At the present time, lasers are used as light sources.
Raman spectra are typically expressed in wavenumbers, which have units of inverse length. In order to convert between spectral wavelength and wavenumbers of shift in the Raman spectrum, the following formula can be used:
where Δw is the Raman shift expressed in wavenumber, λ0 is the excitation wavelength, and λ1 is the Raman spectrum wavelength. Most commonly, the units chosen for expressing wavenumber in Raman spectra is inverse centimeters (cm-1). Since wavelength is often expressed in units of nanometers (nm), the formula above can scale for this units conversion explicitly, giving
Raman spectroscopy is commonly used in chemistry, since vibrational information is specific to the chemical bonds and symmetry of molecules. Therefore, it provides a fingerprint by which the molecule can be identified. For instance, the vibrational frequencies of SiO, Si2O2, and Si3O3 were identified and assigned on the basis of normal coordinate analyses using infrared and Raman spectra.The fingerprint region of organic molecules is in the (wavenumber) range 500–2000 cm−1. Another way that the technique is used to study changes in chemical bonding, e.g., when a substrate is added to an enzyme.
Raman gas analyzers have many practical applications. For instance, they are used in medicine for real-time monitoring of anaesthetic and respiratory gas mixtures during surgery.
In solid state physics, spontaneous Raman spectroscopy is used to, among other things, characterize materials, measure temperature, and find the crystallographic orientation of a sample. As with single molecules, a given solid material has characteristic phonon modes that can help an experimenter identify it. In addition, Raman spectroscopy can be used to observe other low frequency excitations of the solid, such as plasmons, magnons, and superconducting gap excitations. The spontaneous Raman signal gives information on the population of a given phonon mode in the ratio between the Stokes (downshifted) intensity and anti-Stokes (upshifted) intensity.
Raman scattering by an anisotropic crystal gives information on the crystal orientation. The polarization of the Raman scattered light with respect to the crystal and the polarization of the laser light can be used to find the orientation of the crystal, if the crystal structure (to be specific, its point group) is known.
Raman active fibers, such as aramid and carbon, have vibrational modes that show a shift in Raman frequency with applied stress. Polypropylene fibers also exhibit similar shifts. The radial breathing mode is a commonly used technique to evaluate the diameter of carbon nanotubes. In nanotechnology, a Raman microscope can be used to analyze nanowires to better understand the composition of the structures.
Spatially-offset Raman spectroscopy (SORS), which is less sensitive to surface layers than conventional Raman, can be used to discover counterfeit drugs without opening their internal packaging, and for non-invasive monitoring of biological tissue. Raman spectroscopy can be used to investigate the chemical composition of historical documents such as the Book of Kells and contribute to knowledge of the social and economic conditions at the time the documents were produced. This is especially helpful because Raman spectroscopy offers a non-invasive way to determine the best course of preservation or conservation treatment for such materials.
Raman spectroscopy is being investigated as a means to detect explosives for airport security.
Raman spectroscopy has also been used to confirm the prediction of existence of low-frequency phonons in proteins and DNA (see, e.g., greatly stimulating the studies of low-frequency collective motion in proteins and DNA and their biological functions.
Raman spectroscopy offers several advantages for microscopic analysis. Since it is a scattering technique, specimens do not need to be fixed or sectioned. Raman spectra can be collected from a very small volume (< 1 µm in diameter); these spectra allow the identification of species present in that volume. Water does not generally interfere with Raman spectral analysis. Thus, Raman spectroscopy is suitable for the microscopic examination of minerals, materials such as polymers and ceramics, cells and proteins. A Raman microscope begins with a standard optical microscope, and adds an excitation laser, a monochromator, and a sensitive detector (such as a charge-coupled device (CCD), or photomultiplier tube (PMT)). FT-Raman has also been used with microscopes.
In direct imaging, the whole field of view is examined for scattering over a small range of wavenumbers (Raman shifts). For instance, a wavenumber characteristic for cholesterol could be used to record the distribution of cholesterol within a cell culture.
The other approach is hyperspectral imaging or chemical imaging, in which thousands of Raman spectra are acquired from all over the field of view. The data can then be used to generate images showing the location and amount of different components. Taking the cell culture example, a hyperspectral image could show the distribution of cholesterol, as well as proteins, nucleic acids, and fatty acids. Sophisticated signal- and image-processing techniques can be used to ignore the presence of water, culture media, buffers, and other interferents.
Raman microscopy, and in particular confocal microscopy, has very high spatial resolution. For example, the lateral and depth resolutions were 250 nm and 1.7 µm, respectively, using a confocal Raman microspectrometer with the 632.8 nm line from a Helium-Neon laser with a pinhole of 100 µm diameter. Since the objective lenses of microscopes focus the laser beam to several micrometres in diameter, the resulting photon flux is much higher than achieved in conventional Raman setups. This has the added benefit of enhanced fluorescence quenching. However, the high photon flux can also cause sample degradation, and for this reason some setups require a thermally conducting substrate (which acts as a heat sink) in order to mitigate this process.
By using Raman microspectroscopy, in vivo time- and space-resolved Raman spectra of microscopic regions of samples can be measured. As a result, the fluorescence of water, media, and buffers can be removed. Consequently in vivo time- and space-resolved Raman spectroscopy is suitable to examine proteins, cells and organs.
Raman microscopy for biological and medical specimens generally uses near-infrared (NIR) lasers (785 nm diodes and 1064 nm Nd:YAG are especially common). This reduces the risk of damaging the specimen by applying higher energy wavelengths. However, the intensity of NIR Raman is low (owing to the ω4 dependence of Raman scattering intensity), and most detectors required very long collection times. Recently, more sensitive detectors have become available, making the technique better suited to general use. Raman microscopy of inorganic specimens, such as rocks and ceramics and polymers, can use a broader range of excitation wavelengths.
The polarization of the Raman scattered light also contains useful information. This property can be measured using (plane) polarized laser excitation and a polarization analyzer. Spectra acquired with the analyzer set at both perpendicular and parallel to the excitation plane can be used to calculate the depolarization ratio. Study of the technique is useful in teaching the connections between group theory, symmetry, Raman activity, and peaks in the corresponding Raman spectra.
The spectral information arising from this analysis gives insight into molecular orientation and vibrational symmetry. In essence, it allows the user to obtain valuable information relating to the molecular shape, for example in synthetic chemistry or polymorph analysis. It is often used to understand macromolecular orientation in crystal lattices, liquid crystals or polymer samples.
Several variations of Raman spectroscopy have been developed. The usual purpose is to enhance the sensitivity (e.g., surface-enhanced Raman), to improve the spatial resolution (Raman microscopy), or to acquire very specific information (resonance Raman).
• Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS) - Normally done in a silver or gold colloid or a substrate containing silver or gold. Surface plasmons of silver and gold are excited by the laser, resulting in an increase in the electric fields surrounding the metal. Given that Raman intensities are proportional to the electric field, there is large increase in the measured signal (by up to 1011). This effect was originally observed by Martin Fleischmann but the prevailing explanation was proposed by Van Duyne in 1977.
• Resonance Raman spectroscopy - The excitation wavelength is matched to an electronic transition of the molecule or crystal, so that vibrational modes associated with the excited electronic state are greatly enhanced. This is useful for studying large molecules such as polypeptides, which might show hundreds of bands in "conventional" Raman spectra. It is also useful for associating normal modes with their observed frequency shifts.
• Surface-Enhanced Resonance Raman Spectroscopy (SERRS) - A combination of SERS and resonance Raman spectroscopy that uses proximity to a surface to increase Raman intensity, and excitation wavelength matched to the maximum absorbance of the molecule being analysed.
• Hyper Raman - A non-linear effect in which the vibrational modes interact with the second harmonic of the excitation beam. This requires very high power, but allows the observation of vibrational modes that are normally "silent". It frequently relies on SERS-type enhancement to boost the sensitivity.
• Spontaneous Raman Spectroscopy - Used to study the temperature dependence of the Raman spectra of molecules.
• Optical Tweezers Raman Spectroscopy (OTRS) - Used to study individual particles, and even biochemical processes in single cells trapped by optical tweezers.
• Stimulated Raman Spectroscopy - A spatially coincedent, two color pulse (with polarization either parallel or perpendicular) transfers the population from ground to a rovibrationally excited state, if the difference in energy corresponds to an allowed Raman transition, and if neither frequency corresponds to an electronic resonance. Two photon UV ionization, applied after the population transfer but before relaxation, allows the intra-molecular or inter-molecular Raman spectrum of a gas or molecular cluster (indeed, a given conformation of molecular cluster) to be collected. This is a useful molecular dynamics technique.
• Spatially Offset Raman Spectroscopy (SORS) - The Raman scatter is collected from regions laterally offset away from the excitation laser spot, leading to significantly lower contributions from the surface layer than with traditional Raman spectroscopy.
• Coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy (CARS) - Two laser beams are used to generate a coherent anti-Stokes frequency beam, which can be enhanced by resonance.
• Raman optical activity (ROA) - Measures vibrational optical activity by means of a small difference in the intensity of Raman scattering from chiral molecules in right- and left-circularly polarized incident light or, equivalently, a small circularly polarized component in the scattered light.
• Transmission Raman - Allows probing of a significant bulk of a turbid material, such as powders, capsules, living tissue, etc. It was largely ignored following investigations in the late 1960s[21] but was rediscovered in 2006 as a means of rapid assay of pharmaceutical dosage forms.[22] There are also medical diagnostic applications.
• Inverse Raman spectroscopy.
• Tip-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (TERS) - Uses a metallic (usually silver-/gold-coated AFM or STM) tip to enhance the Raman signals of molecules situated in its vicinity. The spatial resolution is approximately the size of the tip apex (20-30 nm). TERS has been shown to have sensitivity down to the single molecule level.
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BW Bewise Inc. Willy Chen willy@tool-tool.com bw@tool-tool.com www.tool-tool.com skype:willy_chen_bw mobile:0937-618-190 Head &Administration Office No.13,Shiang Shang 2nd St., West Chiu Taichung,Taiwan 40356 http://www.tool-tool.com / FAX:+886 4 2471 4839 N.Branch 5F,No.460,Fu Shin North Rd.,Taipei,Taiwan S.Branch No.24,Sec.1,Chia Pu East Rd.,Taipao City,Chiayi Hsien,Taiwan
Welcome to BW tool world! We are an experienced tool maker specialized in cutting tools. We focus on what you need and endeavor to research the best cutter to satisfy users’ demand. Our customers involve wide range of industries, like mold & die, aerospace, electronic, machinery, etc. We are professional expert in cutting field. We would like to solve every problem from you. Please feel free to contact us, its our pleasure to serve for you. BW product including: cutting tool、aerospace tool .HSS DIN Cutting tool、Carbide end mills、Carbide cutting tool、NAS Cutting tool、NAS986 NAS965 NAS897 NAS937orNAS907 Cutting Tools,Carbide end mill、disc milling cutter,Aerospace cutting tool、hss drill’Фрезеры’Carbide drill、High speed steel、Compound Sharpener’Milling cutter、INDUCTORS FOR PCD’CVDD(Chemical Vapor Deposition Diamond )’PCBN (Polycrystalline Cubic Boron Nitride) ’Core drill、Tapered end mills、CVD Diamond Tools Inserts’PCD Edge-Beveling Cutter(Golden Finger’PCD V-Cutter’PCD Wood tools’PCD Cutting tools’PCD Circular Saw Blade’PVDD End Mills’diamond tool. INDUCTORS FOR PCD . POWDER FORMING MACHINE ‘Single Crystal Diamond ‘Metric end mills、Miniature end mills、Специальные режущие инструменты ‘Пустотелое сверло ‘Pilot reamer、Fraises’Fresas con mango’ PCD (Polycrystalline diamond) ‘Frese’POWDER FORMING MACHINE’Electronics cutter、Step drill、Metal cutting saw、Double margin drill、Gun barrel、Angle milling cutter、Carbide burrs、Carbide tipped cutter、Chamfering tool、IC card engraving cutter、Side cutter、Staple Cutter’PCD diamond cutter specialized in grooving floors’V-Cut PCD Circular Diamond Tipped Saw Blade with Indexable Insert’ PCD Diamond Tool’ Saw Blade with Indexable Insert’NAS tool、DIN or JIS tool、Special tool、Metal slitting saws、Shell end mills、Side and face milling cutters、Side chip clearance saws、Long end mills’end mill grinder’drill grinder’sharpener、Stub roughing end mills、Dovetail milling cutters、Carbide slot drills、Carbide torus cutters、Angel carbide end mills、Carbide torus cutters、Carbide ball-nosed slot drills、Mould cutter、Tool manufacturer.
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BW специализируется в научных исследованиях и разработках, и снабжаем самым высокотехнологичным карбидовым материалом для поставки режущих / фрезеровочных инструментов для почвы, воздушного пространства и электронной индустрии. В нашу основную продукцию входит твердый карбид / быстрорежущая сталь, а также двигатели, микроэлектрические дрели, IC картонорезальные машины, фрезы для гравирования, режущие пилы, фрезеры-расширители, фрезеры-расширители с резцом, дрели, резаки форм для шлицевого вала / звездочки роликовой цепи, и специальные нано инструменты. Пожалуйста, посетите сайт www.tool-tool.com для получения большей информации.
BW is specialized in R&D and sourcing the most advanced carbide material with high-tech coating to supply cutting / milling tool for mould & die, aero space and electronic industry. Our main products include solid carbide / HSS end mills, micro electronic drill, IC card cutter, engraving cutter, shell end mills, cutting saw, reamer, thread reamer, leading drill, involute gear cutter for spur wheel, rack and worm milling cutter, thread milling cutter, form cutters for spline shaft/roller chain sprocket, and special tool, with nano grade. Please visit our web www.tool-tool.com for more info.
拉曼光譜學www.tool-tool.com
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拉曼光譜學是用來研究晶格及分子的振動模式、旋轉模式和在一系統裡的其他低頻模式的一種分光技術。拉曼散射為一非彈性散射，通常用來做激發的雷射光範圍為可見光、近紅外光或者在近紫外光範圍附近。雷射光與系統聲子做交互作用，導致最後光子能量增加或減少，而由這些能量的變化可得知聲子模式。這和紅外光吸收光譜的基本原理相似，但兩者所得到的數據結果是互補的。
通常，一個樣品被一束雷射光照射，照射光點被透鏡所聚焦且通過分光儀分光。波長靠近雷射的波長時為彈性雷利散射。
自發性的拉曼散射是非常微弱的，並且很難去分開強度相對於拉曼散射高的雷利散射，使得得到的結果是光譜微弱，導致測定困難。歷史上，拉曼分光儀利用 多個光柵去達到高度的分光，去除雷射光，而可得到能量的微小差異。過去，光電倍增管被選擇為拉曼散射訊號的偵測計，其需要很久的時間才能得到結果。而現今 的技術，帶阻濾波器 (notch filters) 可有效的去除雷射光且光譜儀或傅立葉轉換光譜儀和電荷耦合元件 (CCD) 偵測計的進步，在科學研究中，利用拉曼光譜研究材料特性越來越廣泛。
有很多種的拉曼光譜分析，例如表面增強拉曼效應、針尖增強拉曼效應、偏極拉曼光譜...等。
當光線照射到分子並且和分子中的電子雲及分子鍵結產生交互作用，就會發生拉曼效應。對於自發拉曼效應，光子將分子從基態激發到一個虛擬的能量狀態。 當激發態的分子放出一個光子後並返回到一個不同於基態的旋轉或振動狀態。在基態與新狀態間的能量差會使得釋放光子的頻率與激發光線的波長不同。
如果最終振動狀態的分子比初始狀態時能量高，所激發出來的光子頻率則較低，以確保系統的總能量守衡。這一個頻率的改變被名為Stokes shift。如果最終振動狀態的分子比初始狀態時能量低，所激發出來的光子頻率則較高，這一個頻率的改變被名為Anti-Stokes shift。拉曼散射是由於能量透過光子和分子之間的相互作用而傳遞，就是一個非彈性散射的例子。
關於振動的配位，分子極化電位的改變或稱電子雲的改變量，是分子拉曼效應必定的結果。極化率的變化量將決定拉曼散射強度。該模式頻率的改變是由樣品的旋轉和振動狀態決定。
雖然光的非彈性散射早在1923年被Adolf Smekal預測，但直到1928年才被實際的觀察到。拉曼效應是由觀察者的名字來命名，是由印度科學家C. V. Raman利用太陽光觀察到此現象。（1928年，C. V. Raman與K. S. Krishnanㄧ起發現，並且由Grigory Landsberg 和 Leonid Mandelstam獨立研究。）1930年，拉曼完成光的非彈性散射觀測，並且獲得了諾貝爾物理學獎。他利用太陽光和一個窄帶濾波器製造出單色光，並用 ㄧ個「橫向」濾波器阻擋該單色光。拉曼發現，改變的頻率可以通過「橫向」濾波器。
拉曼效應系統的開創性理論，在1930年至1934年間由捷克斯拉夫的物理學家George Placzek 所開發。汞弧光燈成為主要的光源，先是攝影檢測，然後與光度檢測。目前光源則以雷射光為主。
拉曼光譜學在化學領域廣泛被運用，是因為化學鍵以及對稱分子都其特殊震動的光譜資訊，因此提供作為分子鑑別時的重要特徵。例如，SiO, Si2O2, 和Si3O3的振動頻率是可被鑑別出來的，並列為紅外線光譜學以及拉曼光譜學配位分析的基礎。 有機分子的特殊(波數)範圍在500-2000厘米。另外ㄧ方面，光譜學配位分析技術也被運用到化學鍵結研究上，例如，在基質中加入酵素。
拉曼氣體檢測儀有許多實際的應用。例如，醫學上麻醉藥發揮效用的真正時間和手術中混合呼吸的氣體真正的時間。
自發性的拉曼光譜學在固態物理中常被運用，如原料特性、量測溫度和找尋樣品的crystallographic方位。例如，ㄧ組固態物質的特殊聲子 模式提供實驗者能很快的辨識出單晶。另外，拉曼光譜學可以監測固態的低頻激發，例如電漿、 magnons和超導氣體的激發。拉曼信號，提供聲子模式中，Stokes (低頻轉換) 強度 and anti-Stokes(高頻)強度的比值的資訊。
拉曼散射經由非等向性的晶體所產生，提供確定晶體方向性的資訊。拉曼光線的極化依賴晶體及雷射光的極化，如果晶體結構(尤其是，晶體結構的點群)已經知道，就可以用來找到晶體的方向。
拉曼光譜提供了數個不同種類的顯微技術的分析(<>直徑)。此種散射技術，樣品不需被固定或被切割，且拉曼光譜被收集於很小的範圍。水通常不會干擾拉曼散射的分析，因此拉曼光譜非常適合做為檢測應用在高分 子聚合物、奈米材料、電化學、半導體、薄膜、礦物學、生物、醫學藥品、碳化物、線上過程監測、定量控制、刑事鑑定偵測：玻璃材料、氧化物、油漆和顔料、氫 氧化物、高分子、硫化物、爆炸物、碳酸鹽、纖維、硫酸鹽、化學殘留物、磷酸鹽、顆粒性包裹體、麻醉劑和可控制物質……等。拉曼分光光譜儀，包含了光學顯微 鏡、激發雷射、分光儀、電荷耦合元件(CCD)或者光電倍增管。
拉曼散射光的極化作用亦包含了有用的資訊。此特性可被量測利用平面偏極雷射激發和極化分析器分析(偏振片)。光譜由垂直和平行的偏振片而得平面偏振激發分析計算退極化比率。此種技術的研究對教學連接群論、對稱性、拉曼活性和拉曼的峰值位置一致。
由分析分子的定向和振動的對稱而可得光譜訊號。本質上，它可獲得與分子形狀有關係的的資訊，例如在合成化學或者異構物方面的分析。此方法常被利用來分析分子在晶格、液晶或聚合物中的定向。
數種的拉曼光譜分析技術持續發展中，被用來增強靈敏度(表面增強拉曼效應)、改善空間性的解析度(微拉曼光譜儀)，或者取得特殊的分析訊號(共振拉曼光譜)。
- 表面增強拉曼效應 通常以金或銀的膠體或者基板上附著金或銀的奈米粒子。金或銀粒子的表面電漿共振由雷射所激發，其結果產生增強金屬表面的電場。拉曼訊號的強度與電場成比例關係，因而增強了拉曼訊號(~1011)。此效應由Martin Fleischmann所發現，但是由Van Duyne所解釋此現象在1977年。.
- 共振拉曼光譜 當分子或晶格的激發光源的頻率與電子躍遷之頻率極相接近時，其一些振動模式之強度將大幅增加，此現象稱之共振拉曼效應。
- 表面增強共振拉曼光譜 一個結合共振拉曼光譜現象和接近表面增強拉曼強度的技術，且激發光源的頻率極相接近於被分析的分子的最大吸收。
- 自發性拉曼光譜 分子的拉曼光譜與溫的之間關係現象。
- 光學鉗拉曼光譜
- 空間補償拉曼光譜 拉曼散射收集從側面的區域補償離開雷射激發光點，導致表面的訊號貢獻比傳統的拉曼光譜弱。
- 同調anti-Stokes拉曼光譜 利用兩雷射光產生同調的anti-Stokes頻率譜線，藉此可以增加共振。
- 拉曼光學活性 分子的振動的光學活性，意指對掌異構物的左旋和右旋的偏極特性所造成的拉曼散射微小不同的強度。
- 受激拉曼增益光譜 做同調拉曼散射時，試樣同時受兩雷射之照射，一作激發用(ωL)，一作監控用(ωS)，而拉曼散射之強弱可用ωS之增益為測度。
- 逆拉曼光譜 做同調拉曼散射時，試樣同時受兩雷射之照射，一作激發用(ωL)，一作監控用(ωS)，而拉曼散射之強弱可用ωL之減損為測度。
- 針尖增強拉曼光譜 利用銀或金的針去增強分子的拉曼訊號，其空間的解析度近乎於針尖的大小(20-30 nm)。TERS可以敏感地顯示出單一分子的振動能階。
歡迎來到Bewise Inc.的世界，首先恭喜您來到這接受新的資訊讓產業更有競爭力，我們是提供專業刀具製造商，應對客戶高品質的刀具需求，我們可以協助客戶滿足您對產業的不同要求，我們有能力達到非常卓越的客戶需求品質，這是現有相關技術無法比擬的，我們成功的滿足了各行各業的要求，包括：精密HSS DIN切削刀具、協助客戶設計刀具流程、DIN or JIS 鎢鋼切削刀具設計、NAS986 NAS965 NAS897 NAS937orNAS907 航太切削刀具,NAS航太刀具設計、超高硬度的切削刀具、醫療配件刀具設計、複合式再研磨機、PCD地板專用企口鑽石組合刀具、粉末造粒成型機、主機版專用頂級電桿、PCD V-Cut刀、捨棄式圓鋸片組、粉末成型機、航空機械鉸刀、主機版專用頂級電感、’汽車業刀具設計、電子產業鑽石刀具、木工產業鑽石刀具、銑刀與切斷複合再研磨機、銑刀與鑽頭複合再研磨機、銑刀與螺絲攻複合再研磨機等等。我們的產品涵蓋了從民生刀具到工業級的刀具設計；從微細刀具到大型刀具；從小型生產到大型量產；全自動整合；我們的技術可提供您連續生產的效能，我們整體的服務及卓越的技術，恭迎您親自體驗！！
BW Bewise Inc. Willy Chen willy@tool-tool.com bw@tool-tool.com www.tool-tool.com skype:willy_chen_bw mobile:0937-618-190 Head &Administration Office No.13,Shiang Shang 2nd St., West Chiu Taichung,Taiwan 40356 http://www.tool-tool.com / FAX:+886 4 2471 4839 N.Branch 5F,No.460,Fu Shin North Rd.,Taipei,Taiwan S.Branch No.24,Sec.1,Chia Pu East Rd.,Taipao City,Chiayi Hsien,Taiwan
Welcome to BW tool world! We are an experienced tool maker specialized in cutting tools. We focus on what you need and endeavor to research the best cutter to satisfy users’ demand. Our customers involve wide range of industries, like mold & die, aerospace, electronic, machinery, etc. We are professional expert in cutting field. We would like to solve every problem from you. Please feel free to contact us, its our pleasure to serve for you. BW product including: cutting tool、aerospace tool .HSS DIN Cutting tool、Carbide end mills、Carbide cutting tool、NAS Cutting tool、NAS986 NAS965 NAS897 NAS937orNAS907 Cutting Tools,Carbide end mill、disc milling cutter,Aerospace cutting tool、hss drill’Фрезеры’Carbide drill、High speed steel、Compound Sharpener’Milling cutter、INDUCTORS FOR PCD’CVDD(Chemical Vapor Deposition Diamond )’PCBN (Polycrystalline Cubic Boron Nitride) ’Core drill、Tapered end mills、CVD Diamond Tools Inserts’PCD Edge-Beveling Cutter(Golden Finger’PCD V-Cutter’PCD Wood tools’PCD Cutting tools’PCD Circular Saw Blade’PVDD End Mills’diamond tool. INDUCTORS FOR PCD . POWDER FORMING MACHINE ‘Single Crystal Diamond ‘Metric end mills、Miniature end mills、Специальные режущие инструменты ‘Пустотелое сверло ‘Pilot reamer、Fraises’Fresas con mango’ PCD (Polycrystalline diamond) ‘Frese’POWDER FORMING MACHINE’Electronics cutter、Step drill、Metal cutting saw、Double margin drill、Gun barrel、Angle milling cutter、Carbide burrs、Carbide tipped cutter、Chamfering tool、IC card engraving cutter、Side cutter、Staple Cutter’PCD diamond cutter specialized in grooving floors’V-Cut PCD Circular Diamond Tipped Saw Blade with Indexable Insert’ PCD Diamond Tool’ Saw Blade with Indexable Insert’NAS tool、DIN or JIS tool、Special tool、Metal slitting saws、Shell end mills、Side and face milling cutters、Side chip clearance saws、Long end mills’end mill grinder’drill grinder’sharpener、Stub roughing end mills、Dovetail milling cutters、Carbide slot drills、Carbide torus cutters、Angel carbide end mills、Carbide torus cutters、Carbide ball-nosed slot drills、Mould cutter、Tool manufacturer.
ようこそＢｅｗｉｓｅ Ｉｎｃ.の世界へお越し下さいませ、先ず御目出度たいのは新たな
情報を受け取って頂き、もっと各産業に競争力プラス展開。
弊社は専門なエンド・ミルの製造メーカーで、客先に色んな分野のニーズ、
豊富なパリエーションを満足させ、特にハイテク品質要求にサポート致します。
弊社は各領域に供給できる内容は：
（３）鎢鋼エンド・ミル設計
（４）航空エンド・ミル設計
（５）超高硬度エンド・ミル
（７）医療用品エンド・ミル設計
弊社の製品の供給調達機能は：
（４）オートメーション整備調達
弊社の全般供給体制及び技術自慢の総合専門製造メーカーに貴方のご体験を御待ちしております。
Bewise Inc. talaşlı imalat sanayinde en fazla kullanılan ve üç eksende (x,y,z) talaş kaldırabilen freze takımlarından olan Parmak Freze imalatçısıdır. Çok geniş ürün yelpazesine sahip olan firmanın başlıca ürünlerini Karbür Parmak Frezeler, Kalıpçı Frezeleri, Kaba Talaş Frezeleri, Konik Alın Frezeler, Köşe Radyüs Frezeler, İki Ağızlı Kısa ve Uzun Küresel Frezeler, İç Bükey Frezeler vb. şeklinde sıralayabiliriz.
BW специализируется в научных исследованиях и разработках, и снабжаем самым высокотехнологичным карбидовым материалом для поставки режущих / фрезеровочных инструментов для почвы, воздушного пространства и электронной индустрии. В нашу основную продукцию входит твердый карбид / быстрорежущая сталь, а также двигатели, микроэлектрические дрели, IC картонорезальные машины, фрезы для гравирования, режущие пилы, фрезеры-расширители, фрезеры-расширители с резцом, дрели, резаки форм для шлицевого вала / звездочки роликовой цепи, и специальные нано инструменты. Пожалуйста, посетите сайт www.tool-tool.com для получения большей информации.
BW is specialized in R&D and sourcing the most advanced carbide material with high-tech coating to supply cutting / milling tool for mould & die, aero space and electronic industry. Our main products include solid carbide / HSS end mills, micro electronic drill, IC card cutter, engraving cutter, shell end mills, cutting saw, reamer, thread reamer, leading drill, involute gear cutter for spur wheel, rack and worm milling cutter, thread milling cutter, form cutters for spline shaft/roller chain sprocket, and special tool, with nano grade. Please visit our web www.tool-tool.com for more info.
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