钪Sc www.tool-tool.com

钪（旧译作 鉰、鏮）是一种柔软、银白色的过渡性金属，熔点1541℃。沸点2831℃。常见化合价+3。第一电离能为6.54电子伏特。易溶于水，可与热水作用，在 空气中容易变暗。常跟钆、铒等混合存在，产量很少。钪在地壳中的含量约为0.0005%，主要矿物为钪钇石，钪也存在于核裂变产物中，自然界存在的钪全部 为稳定同位素钪45。

纠错 编辑摘要

目录

• 1 概述
• 2 元素性质
• 3 发现
• 4 制取
• 5 应用

• 1 概述
  • 1.1 简介
  • 1.2 发现
• 2 元素性质
  • 2.1 总体特性
  • 2.2 原子属性
  • 2.3 物理属性
  • 2.4 其他性质
  • 2.5 地质数据
  • 2.6 人体中含量
• 3 发现
• 4 制取
• 5 应用
  • 5.1 钪的第一件法宝
  • 5.2 钪的第二件法宝
  • 5.3 钪的第三件法宝
• 6 神奇的调料
• 7 钪对人的作用
• 8 相关词条
• 9 参考资料
• 
  

钪 - 概述

钪

简介

钪 （旧译作鉰、鏮）是稀土元素之一，为银白色金属，质较软；熔点1541°C，沸点 2831°C，密度2.989克/厘米³。晶体结构有六方密堆积(1335°C以下)和体心立方。第一电离能为6.54电子伏特。钪在化合物中主要呈3价 态，易溶于水，可与热水作用放出氢，也易溶于酸，是一种强还原剂。在空气中容易氧化成Sc2O3而失去金属光泽变成暗灰色。钪的氧化物及氢氧化物只显碱 性，但其盐灰几乎不能水解。氧化钪为白色粉末，易溶于酸中生成相应的盐。 钪的氯化物为白色结晶，易溶于水并能在空气中潮解。钪的离子半径较小，形成配位 化合物的能力较强；钪能与多种氨羧络合剂生成稳定的螯合物；钪能与茜素和苯胂酸等有机试剂生成有色配合物，这个性质被用于钪的比色分析和光谱分析。常跟 钆、铒等混合存在，产量很少。钪在地壳中的含量约为0.0005%，主要矿物为钪钇石，钪也存在于核裂变产物中，自然界存在的钪全部为稳定同位素钪45。 另外，钪还有9种放射性同位素，即40～44Sc和46～49Sc。其中，46Sc作为示踪剂，已在化工、冶金及海洋学等方面使用。在医学上，国外还有人 研究用46Sc来医治癌症。

发现

1817年门捷列夫根据他的元素周期律，预言“类硼”的存在和性质；1879年瑞典的尼尔森从硅铍钇矿和黑稀金矿中分离出钪的氧化物；瑞典的克莱夫在研究钪的性质后，确认就是门捷列夫语言的“类硼”。

元素来源：

主要以矿物 thortveitile 和 wiikite 存在。在一些锡、钨矿中也含有钪，从钨矿、锡石及含有其他稀土的矿石中回收制得，主要矿物为钪钇石，极稀少。

钪 - 元素性质

钪

总体特性

中文名称 钪

英文名称 Scandium

元素符号 Sc

原子序数 21

系列 过渡金属

族 3族

周期4

元素分区d

密度 2985kg/m3

颜色和外表 银白色

质地：质软

地壳含量 5×10-4 %

原子属性

相对原子质量 44.955912(6)原子量单位

原子半径（计算值）160（184）pm

共价半径 144 pm

钪元素性质数据

价电子排布 [氩]3d14s2

电子在每能级的排布 2，8，9，2

氧化价（氧化物 3（弱碱性）

晶体结构 六方密排晶格

晶胞参数：

a = 330.9 pm

b = 330.9 pm

c = 527.33 pm

α = 90°

β = 90°

γ = 120°

物理属性

物质状态 固态

熔点 1814 K（1541 °C）

沸点 3103 K（2830 °C）

摩尔体积 15.00×10-6m3/mol

汽化热 314.2 kJ/mol

熔化热 14.1 kJ/mol

蒸气压 22.1 帕（1812K）

声速 无数据（293.15K）

其他性质

电负性 1.36（鲍林标度）

比热 568 J/(kg•K)

电导率 1.77×106/(米欧姆)

热导率 15.8 W/(m•K)

第一电离能 633.1 kJ/mol

第二电离能 1235.0 kJ/mol

第三电离能 2388.6 kJ/mol

第四电离能 7090.6 kJ/mol

第五电离能 8843 kJ/mol

第六电离能 10679 kJ/mol

第七电离能 13310 kJ/mol

第八电离能 15250 kJ/mol

第九电离能 17370 kJ/mol

第十电离能 21726 kJ/mol

同位素 丰度 半衰期 衰变模式 衰变能量MeV 衰变产物

45Sc 100 % 稳定

46Sc 人造 83.79天 β衰变 2.367 46Ti

地质数据

滞留时间/年: 5000

太阳(相对于 H=1×1012): 1100

地壳/p.p.m.: 16

大西洋表面: 6.1 × 10-7

太平洋表面:3.5 × 10-7

大西洋深处: 8.8 × 10-7

太平洋深处:7.9 × 10-7

人体中含量

血/mg dm-3 : c. 0.008

日摄入量/mg: c. 0.00005

人(70Kg)均体内总量/mg: c. 0.2

钪 - 发现

钪

发现人：尼尔森

发现年代：1876年

发现过程：

1879 年，瑞典的 化学教授尼尔森（L.F.Nilson, 1840~1899）和克莱夫（P.T.Cleve, 1840~1905）差不多同时在稀有的矿物硅铍钇矿和 黑稀金矿中找到了一种新元素。他们给这一元素定名为"Scandium"（钪），钪就是门捷列夫当初所预言的"类硼"元素。他们的发现再次证明了元素周期 律的正确性和门捷列夫的远见卓识。随着钪以及其他一些稀土元素的发现，完成了发现稀土元素第三阶段的另一半。

发现历史：

在 元素化学里，有一系列性质非常接近的金属元素被称为稀土元素。这一系列中包括了十五个镧系元素--镧（La）、铈（Ce）、镨(Pr)、钕(Nd)、钷 (Pm)、钐(Sm)、铕(Eu)、钆(G d)、铽(Tb)、镝(Dy)、钬(Ho)、铒(Er)、铥(Tm)、镱(Yb)、镥(Lu)；以及和这些同族而性质相似的两个更轻的元素：钪（Sc）和 钇（Y）。这一系列元素最初是从瑞典产的比较稀少的矿物中发现的，"土"是当时对不溶于水的金属氧化物的统称，因此得名稀土（Rareearth）。在这 十七个元素里面，钪的排位是最靠前的，原子序数只有21，不过就发现而言，钪比他在元素周期表上面的左邻右舍都要晚了差不多上百年，即使在稀土里面，钪的 发现也不是较早的，排列在钇、铈、镧、铒、铽和镱后面，名列第七。

门捷列夫的预言没有得到人们的注意，但是在十九世纪晚期，对稀土元素的研究却成为了一股热潮。在钪发现之前一年，瑞士的马利纳克 （deMarignac） 从玫瑰红色的铒土中，通过局部分解硝酸盐的方式，得到了一种不同于铒土的白色氧化物，他将这种氧化物命名为镱土，这就是稀土元素发现里面的第六名。当时老 马手头样品没多少 了，就建议手头有充足铒土的科学家多制备一些镱土，以研究它的性质。当时瑞典乌泼撒拉大学的尼尔森手头正好有铒土的样品，他就想按照马利纳克的方法将铒土 提纯，并精确测量铒和镱的原子量（因为他这个时候正在专注于精确测量稀土元素的物理与化学常数以期对元素周期律作出验证）。当他经过13次局部分解之后， 得到了3.5g纯净的镱土。但是这时候奇怪的事情发生了，马利纳克给出的镱的原子量是172.5，而尼尔森得到的则只有167.46。

尼尔森敏 锐地意识到这里面有可能是什么轻质的元素鱼目混珠进去，才让这个原子量的测定不再准斤足两。于是他将得到的镱土又用相同的流程继续处理，最后当只剩下十分 之一样品的时候，测得的原子量更是掉到了134.75；同时光谱中还发现了一些新的吸收线。尼尔森的判断是正确的，因此也就获得了给孩子起名的权利。他用 他的故乡斯堪的纳维亚半岛给钪命名为Scandium。1879年，他正式公布了自己的研究结果，在他的论文中，还提到了钪盐和钪土的很多化学性质。不过 在这篇论文中，他没有能给出钪的精确原子量，也还不确定钪在元素周期中的位置。

尼尔森的好友，也是同在乌泼撒拉大学任教的克利夫也在一起做这个工作。他从铒土出发，将铒土作为大量组分排除掉，再分出镱土和钪土之后，又从剩余物中找 到了钬和铥这两个新的稀土元素。做为副产物，他提纯了钪土，并进一步了解了钪的物理和化学性质。这样一来，门捷列夫放出的漂流瓶沉睡了十年之后，终于被克 利夫捞了起来，他认识到，钪，就是门捷列夫的类硼。我们来看看钪的一些化学性质和瓶中那张古旧的羊皮纸上写过的预言是否吻合吧。

Eka-Boron Scandium

原子量 44 45.1（克利夫，1879）

原子体积:(立方厘米/摩尔)15.0

地壳中含量：（ppm）16

元素在太阳中的含量:(ppm) 0.04

元素在海水中的含量:(ppm)

太平洋表面 0.00000035

44.955910（IUPAC，现代）

可以形成Eb2O3形式的化合物，其比重3.5，碱性强于氧化铝，弱于氧化钇和氧化镁；是否能与氯化铵反应还是疑问。钪土Sc2O3，其比重3.86，碱性强于氧化铝，弱于氧化钇和氧化镁，与氯化铵不反应。

盐类无色，与氢氧化钾和碳酸钠形成胶体沉淀，各种盐类均难以完好结晶。钪盐无色，与氢氧化钾和碳酸钠形成胶体沉淀，硫酸盐极难结晶。

碳酸盐不溶于水，可能形成碱式碳酸盐沉淀。碳酸钪不溶于水，并容易脱掉二氧化碳。

硫酸复盐可能不形成矾。 钪的硫酸复盐不成矾。

无水氯化物EbCl3挥发性低于氯化铝，比氯化镁更容易水解。 ScCl3升华温度850oC，AlCl3则为100oC，在水溶液中水解。

Eb不由光谱发现。 Sc不由光谱发现。

在那个不但对于元素的电子层结构一无所知（连电子都是1899年才发现的），甚至还有权威如杜马这样的化学家对原子论都持怀疑态度。能将一个未发现的元素的性质描述得如此精准，真是让读者后背泛起一层隐隐的凉意。

钪 - 制取

钪合金

在 被发现后相当长一段时间里，因为难于制得，钪的用途一直没有表现出来。随着对稀土元素分离方法的日益改进，如今用于提纯钪的化合物，已经有了相当成熟的工 艺流程。因为钪比起钇和镧系元素来，氢氧化物的碱性是最弱的，所以包含了钪的稀土元素混生矿，经过处理转入溶液后用氨（或极稀的碱）处理时，氢氧化钪将首 先析出，故应用"分级沉淀"法可比较容易地把它从稀土元素中分离出来。

另一种方法是利用硝酸盐的分极分解进行分离，由于硝酸钪最容易分解，可以达到分离出钪的目的。

用电解的方法可制得金属钪，在炼钪时将ScCl3、KCl、LiCl共熔，以熔融的锌为阴极电解之，使钪在锌极上析出，然后将锌蒸去可得金属钪。

另外，在加工矿石生产铀、钍和镧系元素时易回收钪。在铀、钍、钨、锡等矿藏中综合回收伴生的钪也是钪的重要来源之一。

钪 - 应用

钪用途

1，在冶金工业中，钪常用于制造合金（合金的添加剂），以改善合金的强度、硬度和耐热和性能。如，在铁水中加入少量的钪，可显著改善铸铁的性能，少量的钪加入铝中，可改善其强度和耐热性。

2，在电子工业中，钪可用作各种半导体器件，如钪的亚硫酸盐在半导体中的应用已引起了国内外的注意，含钪的铁氧体在计算机磁芯中也颇有前途。

3，在化学工业上，用钪化合物作酒精脱氢及脱水剂，生产乙烯和用废盐酸生产氯时的高效催化剂。

4，在玻璃工业中，可以制造含钪的特种玻璃。

5，在电光源工业中，含钪和钠制成的钪钠灯，具有效率高和光色正的优点。

6，自然界中钪均以45Sc形式存在，另外，钪还有9种放射性同位素，即40～44Sc和46～49Sc。其中，46Sc作为示踪剂，已在化工、冶金及海洋学等方面使用。

7，在医学上，国外还有人研究用46Sc来医治癌症。

钪的第一件法宝

钪 的第一件法宝叫做钪钠灯，可以用来给千家万户带来光明。这是一种金属卤化物电光源：在灯泡中充入碘化钠和碘化钪，同时加入钪和钠箔，在高压放电 时，钪离子和钠离子分别发出他们的特征发射波长的光，钠的谱线为589.0和589.6nm两条著名的黄色光线，而钪的谱线为361.3~424.7nm 的一系列近紫外和蓝色光发射，因为互为补色，产生的总体光色就是白色光。正是由于钪钠灯具有发光效率高、光色好、节电、使用寿命长和破雾能力强等特点，使 其可广泛用于电视摄像和广场、体育馆、马路照明，被称为第三代光源。在中国这种灯还是作为新技术被逐渐推广的，而在一些发达国家，这种灯早在80年代初就 被广泛使用了。

钪的第二件法宝

钪的第二件法宝是太阳能光电池，可以将撒落地面的光明收集起来，变成推动人类社会的电力。在金属-绝缘体-半导体硅光电池和太阳能电池中，钪是最好的阻挡金属。

钪的第三件法宝

他 的第三件法宝叫做γ射线源， 这个法宝自己就能大放光明，不过这种光亮我们肉眼接收不到，是高能的光子流。我们平常从矿物中提炼出来的是45Sc，这是钪的唯一一种天然同位素，每一个 45Sc的原子核中有21个质子和24个中子。倘若我们像把猴子放到太上老君的炼丹炉中炼上七七四十九天一样将钪放在核反应堆中，让他吸收中子辐射，原子 核中多一个中子的46Sc就诞生了。46Sc这种人工放射性同位素可以当作γ射线源或者示踪原子，还可以用来对恶性肿瘤进行放射治疗。还有像钇镓钪石榴石 激光器，氟化钪玻璃红外光导纤维，电视机上钪涂层的阴极射线管之类的用途简直不知凡几，看来钪生来就和光明有缘呢。

钪 - 神奇的调料

金属钪

上 面说了钪的一些应用，不过因为价格高昂，考虑到成本在工业产品里很少会用到很大数量钪和钪的化合物，都是像灯泡里那样薄薄的一层钪箔之类的用法。而在更多 一些领域，钪和钪的化合物更是被作为神奇的调料使用，好像大厨手中的盐、糖或味精，只需要一星半点，就有画龙点睛的作用。

在无机化学里，掺 杂是一个非常重要的手段。在一个作为基体的晶体结构中掺入少量的其他化合物，因为被掺杂物质在化学性质上和原有基体的不同，晶格结 构会出现各种各样的变化和缺陷，从而或者提升原有基体的性质，或者增添原来不具有的活性。比如大家最耳熟能详的P型和N型半导体原料，就是分别在导通能力 很差的单晶硅里面，添加了因为缺少价电子导致空穴的硼，和因为富余价电子而产生自由电子的磷获得的。我们的钪也是一个重要的掺杂原料，很多材料就是因为掺 入了钪获得了意料之外的性质。

单质形式的钪，已经被大量应用于铝合金的掺杂。在铝中只要加入千分之几的钪就会生成Al3Sc新相，对铝合 金起变质作用，使合金的结构和性能发生明 显变化。加入0.2%~0.4%的Sc（这个比例也真的和家里炒菜放盐的比例差不多，只需要那么一点）可使合金的再结晶温度提高150~200℃，且高温 强度、结构稳定性、焊接性能和抗腐蚀性能均明显提高，并可避免高温下长期工作时易产生的脆化现象。高强高韧铝合金、新型高强耐蚀可焊铝合金、新型高温铝合 金、高强度抗中子辐照用铝合金等，在航天、航空、舰船、 核反应堆以及轻型汽车和高速列车等方面具有非常诱人的开发前景。钪也是铁的优良改化剂，少量钪可显著提高铸铁的强度和硬度。另外，钪还可用作高温钨和铬合 金的添加剂。当然，除了为他人做嫁衣裳之外，因为钪具有较高熔点，而其密度却和铝接近，也被应用在钪钛合金和钪镁合金这样的高熔点轻质合金上，但是这样的 稀罕东西恐怕只有航天飞机和火箭上才舍得用了，要是拿来做自行车架子，这个价值摆出去恐怕一天能被偷上二三十次。

单质的钪一般应用于合 金，而钪的氧化物也是物以类聚地在陶瓷材料上面起到了重要的作用。像可以用作固体氧化物燃料电池电极材料的四方相氧化锆陶瓷材 料有一种很特别的性质，在这种电解质的电导会随着温度和环境中氧的浓度增高而增大。但是这种陶瓷材料的晶体结构本身不能稳定存在，不具有工业价值；必须要 在其中掺杂一些能够将这种结构固定下来的物质才能够保持原有的性质。掺入6-10%的氧化钪就好像混凝土结构一样，让氧化锆能够稳定在四方形的晶格上。还 有像给高强度，耐高温的 工程陶瓷材料氮化硅做增密剂和稳定剂。氧化钪作为增密剂，可以在细小颗粒的边缘生成难熔相Sc2Si2O7，从而减小工程陶瓷的高温变形性，与添加其它氧 化物相比能更好改善氮化硅的高温机械性能。在高温反应堆核燃料中UO2加入少量Sc2O3可避免因UO2向U3O8转化发生的晶格转变、体积增大和出现裂 纹。

在有机化学上钪也并非默默无闻，不过在有机反应里面钪的作用虽然同样是一种调料，却和在无机材料里面用于掺杂不同，而是被作为催化剂 使用。 Sc2O3可用于乙醇或异丙醇脱水和脱氧、乙酸分解，由CO和H2制乙烯等等中。含Sc2O3的Pt-Al催化剂更是在石油化工中作为重油氢化提净，精炼 流程的重要催化剂。而在诸如异丙苯催化裂化反应中，Sc-Y沸石催化剂比硅酸铝的活性大1000倍；和一些传统的催化剂比起来，钪催化剂的发展前景将是很 光明的。

从 尼尔森注意到原子量数据的亏欠到今天，钪进入人们的视野不过一百年二十多年，却差不多坐了一百年的冷板凳，直到上个世纪后期材料科学的蓬勃发展才给他带来 了生机。到今天，连同钪在内的稀土元素都已经成为了材料科学中炙手可热的明星，在成千上万的体系中发挥着千变万化的作用，每天都在给我们的生活带来多一点 的便利，创造的经济价值更是难以计量。按阴阳五行的说法，土生金，其信然乎？

钪 - 钪对人的作用

钪对于人来说是不是必需元素，目前尚无定论。人体中钪微量存在。怀疑其有致癌性。钪容易与8-羟基喹啉形成络合物这种络合物的形成可以用于对钪的分析。用中子放射性分析法可以测定ng/g以下的钪定量。

引用出處：

http://www.hudong.com/wiki/%E9%92%AA

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Scandium www.tool-tool.com

Scandium ( /ˈskændiəm/ SKAN-dee-əm) is a chemical element with symbol Sc and atomic number 21. A silvery-white metallic transition metal, it has historically been sometimes classified as a rare earth element, together with yttrium and the lanthanoids. In 1879, Lars Fredrik Nilson and his team, found a new element with spectral analysis, in the minerals euxenite and gadolinite from Scandinavia.

Scandium is present in most of the rare earth element and uranium deposits, but it is extracted from these ores in only a few mines worldwide. Due to the low availability and the difficulties in the preparation of metallic scandium, which was first done in 1937, it took until the 1970s before applications for scandium were developed. The positive effects of scandium on aluminium alloys were discovered in the 1970s, and its use in such alloys remains its only major application.

The properties of Sc compounds are intermediate between the properties of Al and Y, and there is a diagonal relationship between the behavior of Mg and Sc, just as there is between Be and Al. There has been controversy as to whether yttrium is in the same group as lanthanum or as lutetium.[3] In the chemical compounds of the elements shown as group 3, above, the predominant oxidation state is +3. The ions M3+ will all have the electronic configuration of a noble gas, so it is reasonable that they should be in the same group of the periodic table. Most modern text-books place Sc, Y, La and Ac in the same periodic group.

Contents

[hide]

• 1 Properties
  • 1.1 Chemical characteristics of the element
  • 1.2 Isotopes
  • 1.3 Occurrence
• 2 Production
• 3 Compounds
  • 3.1 Oxides and hydroxides
  • 3.2 Halides and pseudohalides
  • 3.3 Organic derivatives
  • 3.4 Compounds where scandium is not Sc3+
• 4 History
• 5 Applications
• 6 Health and safety
• 7 See also
• 8 References
• 9 External links

[edit] Properties

[edit] Chemical characteristics of the element

Scandium metal is hard and has a silvery appearance. It develops a slightly yellowish or pinkish cast when exposed to air. It is not resistant to weathering and dissolves slowly in most dilute acids. It does not react with a 1:1 mixture of nitric acid (HNO3) and hydrofluoric acid, HF, presumably due to the formation of an impermeable passive layer on the surface of the metal.

[edit] Isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of scandium

Scandium exists naturally as a single isotope 45Sc, which has a nuclear spin of 7/2. Thirteen radioisotopes have been characterized with the most stable being 46Sc with a half-life of 83.8 days, 47Sc with a half-life of 3.35 days, and 48Sc with a half-life of 43.7 hours. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half lives that are less than 4 hours, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 2 minutes. This element also has five meta states with the most stable being 44mSc (t½ = 58.6 h).[4]

The isotopes of scandium range in atomic weight from 40 u (40Sc) to 54 u (54Sc). The primary decay mode at masses lower than the only stable isotope, 45Sc, is electron capture, and the primary mode at masses above it is beta emission. The primary decay products at atomic weights below 45Sc are calcium isotopes and the primary products from higher atomic weights are titanium isotopes.[4]

[edit] Occurrence

Scandium does not have a particularly low abundance in the earth's crust. Estimates vary from 18 to 25 ppm, which is comparable to the abundance of cobalt (20–30 ppm). Scandium is only the 50th most common element on earth (35th most abundant in the crust, but it is the 23rd most common element in the sun).[5] However, scandium is distributed sparsely and occurs in trace amounts in many minerals.[6] Rare minerals from Scandinavia[7] and Madagascar[8] such as thortveitite, euxenite, and gadolinite are the only known concentrated sources of this element. Thortveitite can contain up to 45% of scandium in the form of scandium(III) oxide.[7]

The stable form of scandium is created in supernovas via the r-process.[9]

[edit] Production

World production of scandium is in the order of 2 tonnes per year in the form of scandium oxide. The primary production is 400 kg while the rest is from stockpiles of Russia generated during the Cold War. In 2003, only three mines produced scandium: the uranium and iron mines in Zhovti Vody in Ukraine, the rare earth mines in Bayan Obo, China and the apatite mines in the Kola peninsula, Russia. In each case scandium is a byproduct from the extraction of other elements.[10] and is sold as scandium oxide.

The production of metallic scandium is in the order of 10 kg per year.[10][11] The oxide is converted to scandium fluoride and reduced with metallic calcium.

Madagascar and Iveland-Evje region in Norway have the only deposits of minerals with high scandium content, thortveitite (Sc,Y)2(Si2O7) and kolbeckite ScPO4·2H2O, but these are not being exploited.[11] Other scandium sources include the nickel and cobalt laterite mines in Australia at Greenvale, Queensland, Syerston and Lake Innes, New South Wales, iron, tin, and tungsten deposits in China and uranium deposits in Russia and Kazakhstan. As of 2003, scandium was not being extracted from the tailings at any of these mines, but some scandium extraction may be started if there is sufficient demand.[10] There is currently no primary production of scandium in the Americas, Europe, or Australia.

The absence of reliable, secure, stable and long term production has limited commercial applications of scandium in most countries. This is despite a comprehensive body of research and a large number of patents which identify significant benefits for the use of scandium over other elements. Particularly promising are the properties of stabilizing zirconia and strengthening aluminium alloys (0.5% scandium). Scandia-stabilized zirconia has a growing market demand for use as a high efficiency electrolyte in solid oxide fuel cells. The availability of high-purity scandium oxide production is proposed to commence from the NORNICO project near Greenvale, Queensland in 2013–2014.

[edit] Compounds

The chemistry is almost completely dominated by the trivalent ion. The radii of M3+ ions in the preceding table indicate why the chemistry of scandium is more closely related to that of yttrium than that of aluminium and explains why scandium has been classified as a lanthanide-like element.

Ionic radii (pm)

Al Sc Y La Lu

53.5 74.5 90.0 103.2 86.1

[edit] Oxides and hydroxides

The oxide Sc2O3 is weakly acidic and the hydroxide Sc(OH)3 is amphoteric:

Sc(OH)3 + 3 OH− → Sc(OH)3−

6Sc(OH)3 + 3 H+ + 3 H2O → [Sc(H2O)6]3+

The α- and γ- forms of scandium oxide hydroxide (ScO(OH)), are isostructural with their aluminium oxide hydroxide counterparts.[12] Solutions of Sc3+ in water are acidic because of hydrolysis.

[edit] Halides and pseudohalides

The halides ScX3 (X = Cl, Br, I) are very soluble in water, but ScF3 is insoluble. In all four halides the scandium is 6-coordinate. The halides are Lewis acids; for example, ScF3 dissolves a solution containing excess fluoride to form [ScF6]3−. The coordination number 6 is typical of Sc(III). In the larger Y3+ and La3+ ions, 8- and 9- coordination are often found. Scandium(III) triflate is sometimes used as a Lewis acid catalyst in organic chemistry.

[edit] Organic derivatives

Main article: Organoscandium compounds

Scandium forms a series of organometallic compounds with C5Me5 ligands (Cp) such as the chlorine-bridged dimer, [ScCp2Cl]2.[13]

[edit] Compounds where scandium is not Sc3+

Compounds that feature Sc in the oxidation state other than 3 are well known. The cluster [Sc6Cl12]3− is a similar structure to that of the Nb6Cl12 cluster wherein chloride centers bridge the 12 edges of an octahedron of metal atoms.[14] The nature of the hydride ScH2 is not yet fully understood.[2] It appears not to be a saline hydride of Sc(II), but may be a compound of Sc(III) with two hydrides and an electron which is delocalized in a kind of metallic structure. ScH can be observed spectroscopically at high temperatures in the gas phase.[1] In the compounds ScB and ScC, boron and carbon are incorporated non-stoichiometrically into the lattice of the scandium.[15]

[edit] History

Dmitri Mendeleev, creator of the periodic table, predicted the existence of an element ekaboron, with an atomic mass between 40 and 48 in 1869. Ten years later Lars Fredrik Nilson found a new element in the minerals euxenite and gadolinite from Scandinavia. He was able to prepare 2 grams of scandium oxide of high purity.[16][17] He named it scandium, from the Latin Scandia meaning "Scandinavia". Nilson was apparently unaware of Mendeleev's prediction, but Per Teodor Cleve recognized the correspondence and notified Mendeleev.[18]

Metallic scandium was produced for the first time in 1937 by electrolysis of a eutectic mixture, at 700–800 °C, of potassium, lithium, and scandium chlorides.[19] The first pound of 99% pure scandium metal was produced in 1960. The use for aluminium alloys began in 1971, following a US patent.[20] Aluminium-scandium alloys were also developed in the USSR.[21]

[edit] Applications

Parts of the MiG-29 are made from Al-Sc alloy.[22]

The addition of scandium to aluminium limits the excessive grain growth that occurs in the heat-affected zone of welded aluminium components. This has two beneficial effects: the precipitated Al3Sc forms smaller crystals than are formed in other aluminium alloys[22] and the volume of precipitate-free zones that normally exist at the grain boundaries of age-hardening aluminium alloys is reduced.[22] Both of these effects increase the usefulness of the alloy. However, titanium alloys, which are similar in lightness and strength, are cheaper and much more widely used.[23]

The main application of scandium by weight is in aluminium-scandium alloys for minor aerospace industry components. These alloys contain between 0.1% and 0.5% of scandium. They were used in the Russian military aircraft, specifically the MiG-21 and MiG-29.[22]

Some items of sports equipment, which rely on high performance materials, have been made with scandium-aluminium alloys, including baseball bats[24], lacrosse sticks, as well as bicycle[25] frames and components. Lacrosse sticks are also made with scandium-titanium alloys to take advantage of the strength of titanium. The American gunmaking company Smith & Wesson produces revolvers with frames composed of scandium alloy and cylinders of titanium.[26]

Approximately 20 kg (as Sc2O3) of scandium is used annually in the United States to make high-intensity discharge lamps.[27] Scandium iodide, along with sodium iodide, when added to a modified form of mercury-vapor lamp, produces a form of metal halide lamp, an artificial light source which produce a very white light with high color rendering index that sufficiently resembles sunlight to allow good color-reproduction with TV cameras.[28] About 80 kg of scandium is used in metal halide lamps/light bulbs globally per year. The first scandium-based metal halide lamps were patented by General Electric and initially made in North America, although they are now produced in all major industrialized countries. The radioactive isotope 46Sc is used in oil refineries as a tracing agent.[27] Scandium triflate is a catalytic Lewis acid used in organic chemistry.[29]

[edit] Health and safety

Elemental scandium is not considered to be toxic. Little animal testing of scandium compounds has been done.[30] The median lethal dose (LD50) levels for scandium(III) chloride for rats have been determined and were intraperitoneal 4 mg/kg and oral 755 mg/kg.[31] In the light of these results compounds of scandium should be handled as compounds of moderate toxicity.

引用出處：

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandium

歡迎來到Bewise Inc.的世界，首先恭喜您來到這接受新的資訊讓產業更有競爭力，我們是提供專業刀具製造商，應對客戶高品質的刀具需求，我們可以協助客戶滿足您對產業的不同要求，我們有能力達到非常卓越的客戶需求品質，這是現有相關技術無法比擬的，我們成功的滿足了各行各業的要求，包括：精密HSS DIN切削刀具、協助客戶設計刀具流程、DIN or JIS 鎢鋼切削刀具設計、NAS986 NAS965 NAS897 NAS937orNAS907 航太切削刀具,NAS航太刀具設計、超高硬度的切削刀具、醫療配件刀具設計、複合式再研磨機、PCD地板專用企口鑽石組合刀具、粉末造粒成型機、主機版專用頂級電桿、PCBN刀具、PCD刀具、單晶刀具、PCD V-Cut刀、捨棄式圓鋸片組、粉末成型機、航空機械鉸刀、主機版專用頂級電感、’汽車業刀具設計、電子產業鑽石刀具、木工產業鑽石刀具、銑刀與切斷複合再研磨機、銑刀與鑽頭複合再研磨機、銑刀與螺絲攻複合再研磨機等等。我們的產品涵蓋了從民生刀具到工業級的刀具設計；從微細刀具到大型刀具；從小型生產到大型量產；全自動整合；我們的技術可提供您連續生產的效能，我們整體的服務及卓越的技術，恭迎您親自體驗！！

BW Bewise Inc. Willy Chen willy@tool-tool.com bw@tool-tool.com www.tool-tool.com skype:willy_chen_bw mobile:0937-618-190 Head &Administration Office No.13,Shiang Shang 2nd St., West Chiu Taichung,Taiwan 40356 http://www.tool-tool.com/ / FAX:+886 4 2471 4839 N.Branch 5F,No.460,Fu Shin North Rd.,Taipei,Taiwan S.Branch No.24,Sec.1,Chia Pu East Rd.,Taipao City,Chiayi Hsien,Taiwan

Welcome to BW tool world! We are an experienced tool maker specialized in cutting tools. We focus on what you need and endeavor to research the best cutter to satisfy users’ demand. Our customers involve wide range of industries, like mold & die, aerospace, electronic, machinery, etc. We are professional expert in cutting field. We would like to solve every problem from you. Please feel free to contact us, its our pleasure to serve for you. BW product including: cutting tool、aerospace tool .HSS DIN Cutting tool、Carbide end mills、Carbide cutting tool、NAS Cutting tool、NAS986 NAS965 NAS897 NAS937orNAS907 Cutting Tools,Carbide end mill、disc milling cutter,Aerospace cutting tool、hss drill’Фрезеры’Carbide drill、High speed steel、Compound Sharpener’Milling cutter、INDUCTORS FOR PCD’CVDD(Chemical Vapor Deposition Diamond )’PCBN (Polycrystalline Cubic Boron Nitride) ’Core drill、Tapered end mills、CVD Diamond Tools Inserts’PCD Edge-Beveling Cutter(Golden Finger’PCD V-Cutter’PCD Wood tools’PCD Cutting tools’PCD Circular Saw Blade’PVDD End Mills’diamond tool. INDUCTORS FOR PCD . POWDER FORMING MACHINE ‘Single Crystal Diamond ‘Metric end mills、Miniature end mills、Специальные режущие инструменты ‘Пустотелое сверло ‘Pilot reamer、Fraises’Fresas con mango’ PCD (Polycrystalline diamond) ‘Frese’POWDER FORMING MACHINE’Electronics cutter、Step drill、Metal cutting saw、Double margin drill、Gun barrel、Angle milling cutter、Carbide burrs、Carbide tipped cutter、Chamfering tool、IC card engraving cutter、Side cutter、Staple Cutter’PCD diamond cutter specialized in grooving floors’V-Cut PCD Circular Diamond Tipped Saw Blade with Indexable Insert’ PCD Diamond Tool’ Saw Blade with Indexable Insert’NAS tool、DIN or JIS tool、Special tool、Metal slitting saws、Shell end mills、Side and face milling cutters、Side chip clearance saws、Long end mills’end mill grinder’drill grinder’sharpener、Stub roughing end mills、Dovetail milling cutters、Carbide slot drills、Carbide torus cutters、Angel carbide end mills、Carbide torus cutters、Carbide ball-nosed slot drills、Mould cutter、Tool manufacturer.

Bewise Inc. www.tool-tool.com

ようこそＢｅｗｉｓｅ　Ｉｎｃ.の世界へお越し下さいませ、先ず御目出度たいのは新たな

情報を受け取って頂き、もっと各産業に競争力プラス展開。

弊社は専門なエンド・ミルの製造メーカーで、客先に色んな分野のニーズ、

豊富なパリエーションを満足させ、特にハイテク品質要求にサポート致します。

弊社は各領域に供給できる内容は：

（１）精密ＨＳＳエンド・ミルのＲ＆Ｄ

（２）Carbide Cutting tools設計

（３）鎢鋼エンド・ミル設計

（４）航空エンド・ミル設計

（５）超高硬度エンド・ミル

（６）ダイヤモンド・エンド・ミル

（７）医療用品エンド・ミル設計

（８）自動車部品＆材料加工向けエンド・ミル設計

弊社の製品の供給調達機能は：

（１）生活産業～ハイテク工業までのエンド・ミル設計

（２）ミクロ・エンド・ミル～大型エンド・ミル供給

（３）小Ｌｏｔ生産～大量発注対応供給

（４）オートメーション整備調達

（５）スポット対応～流れ生産対応

弊社の全般供給体制及び技術自慢の総合専門製造メーカーに貴方のご体験を御待ちしております。

Bewise Inc. talaşlı imalat sanayinde en fazla kullanılan ve üç eksende (x,y,z) talaş kaldırabilen freze takımlarından olan Parmak Freze imalatçısıdır. Çok geniş ürün yelpazesine sahip olan firmanın başlıca ürünlerini Karbür Parmak Frezeler, Kalıpçı Frezeleri, Kaba Talaş Frezeleri, Konik Alın Frezeler, Köşe Radyüs Frezeler, İki Ağızlı Kısa ve Uzun Küresel Frezeler, İç Bükey Frezeler vb. şeklinde sıralayabiliriz.

BW специализируется в научных исследованиях и разработках, и снабжаем самым высокотехнологичным карбидовым материалом для поставки режущих / фрезеровочных инструментов для почвы, воздушного пространства и электронной индустрии. В нашу основную продукцию входит твердый карбид / быстрорежущая сталь, а также двигатели, микроэлектрические дрели, IC картонорезальные машины, фрезы для гравирования, режущие пилы, фрезеры-расширители, фрезеры-расширители с резцом, дрели, резаки форм для шлицевого вала / звездочки роликовой цепи, и специальные нано инструменты. Пожалуйста, посетите сайт www.tool-tool.com для получения большей информации.

BW is specialized in R&D and sourcing the most advanced carbide material with high-tech coating to supply cutting / milling tool for mould & die, aero space and electronic industry. Our main products include solid carbide / HSS end mills, micro electronic drill, IC card cutter, engraving cutter, shell end mills, cutting saw, reamer, thread reamer, leading drill, involute gear cutter for spur wheel, rack and worm milling cutter, thread milling cutter, form cutters for spline shaft/roller chain sprocket, and special tool, with nano grade. Please visit our web www.tool-tool.com for more info.

镉Cd www.tool-tool.com

镉（gé，音隔），是一种化学元素，它的化学符号是Cd，它的原子序数是48，是一种蓝白色的过渡金属，性质柔软，有毒。镉能在锌矿中找到。镉和锌均会用作电池的材料。

纠错 编辑摘要

目录

• 1 概述
• 2 发现
• 3 性质
• 4 元素用途
• 5 危害

• 1 概述
• 2 发现
• 3 性质
• 4 元素用途
• 5 危害
  • 5.1 人体
  • 5.2 环境
  • 5.3 预防
• 6 污染事件
• 
  

镉 - 概述

镉

镉和锌是同族之金属元素，往往与锌、铜、铅等共生，在冶炼铜、锌及镀镉工厂中均有相当量的镉单质和化合物排入大气与废水，废水中的镉排入江河沉积天水底并被生物吸收。

目 前，世界上主要生产镉的国家有美国、独联体、加拿大、日本、澳大利亚等国。美国是世界主要产镉的国家，1940年就已接近3000吨。1977年世界镉的 总产量已近两万吨。美国也是最大的镉进口国，其次是英国、法国和比利时。估计资本主义国家镉的消费量占世界总消费量的三分之二左右。

镉 - 发现

镉 与它的同族元素汞和锌相比，被发现的晚的多。它在地壳中含量比汞还多一些，但是汞一经出现就以强烈的金属光泽、较大的比重、特殊的流动性和能够溶解多种金 属的姿态吸引了人们的注意。镉在地壳中的含量比锌少得多，常常以少量包含于锌矿中，很少单独成矿。金属镉比锌更易挥发，因此在用高温炼锌时，它比锌更早逸 出，逃避了人们的觉察。这就注定了镉不可能先于锌而被人们发现。

镉 - 性质

镉，原子序数48，原子量112.411，元素名来源于拉丁文，原意是“菱锌矿”。镉是较稀有的元素，在地壳中的含量约为十万分之二。镉在自然界都以化合物形式存在，主要硫镉矿等。镉有8种天然同位素：镉106、108、110、111、112、113、114、116。

镉 为银白色有光泽金属，熔点320.9°C，沸点765°C，密度8.642克/厘米³。比锡稍硬，比锌软，有韧性和延展性。镉在干燥空气中很稳定，湿空气 中表面覆盖氧化膜，红热时形成褐色氧化物，燃烧时产生红色火焰；镉与卤素在高温下反应剧烈，形成卤化镉；可与硫直接化合成硫化镉；能溶于酸形成相应的盐， 但不溶于强碱。

镉 - 元素用途

用于电底、制造合金等；并可做成原子反应堆中的中子吸收棒。镉氧化电位高，故可用作铁、钢、铜之保护膜，广用于电镀上，并用于充电电池、电视映像管、黄色颜料及作为塑料之安定剂。镉化合物可用于杀虫剂、杀菌剂、颜料、油漆等之制造业。

镉 - 危害

人体

镍镉电池

镉不是人体所必需的微量元素。新生婴儿体内几乎无镉，人体中镉全部是出生后通过外界环境(例如饮水、食物、香烟)进入人体的。

研究显示，镉中毒会造成肾小管再吸收障碍，低分子量蛋白质和钙质等由尿中流失，长期下去容易形成骨质软化，关节疼痛、骨折及骨骼变形等。

长期摄入过量的镉，会影响体内其他有益元素的效能，造成肝肾损害、肺气肿、支气管炎、内分泌失调、食欲不振、失眠等问题。镉转移至动脉，使血压上升，引致血管脂肪化。高血压病人尿中的镉含量较正常值高出40%。另外，镉也是一种致癌物质，可能诱发前列腺癌症。

加工食物会破坏镉与锌的平衡，饮食中若锌含量不足，身体便会积存镉以取代。

环境

镉 污染土壤，可造成公害病痛痛病。镉对土壤的污染，主要通过两种形式，一是工业废气中的镉随风向四周扩散，经自然沉降，蓄积于工厂周围土壤中，另一 种方式是含镉工业废水灌溉农田，使土壤受到镉的污染。因此为了防止镉对环境的污染，必须做好环境保护工作，严格执行镉的环境卫生标准。

预防

为了预防镉中毒，熔炼、使用镉及其化合物的场所，应具有良好的通风和密闭装置。焊接和电镀工艺除应有必要的排风设备外，操作时应戴个人防毒面具。不应在生产场所进食和吸烟。中国规定的生产场所氧化镉最高容许浓度为0.1mg/m3。

镀镉器皿不能存放食品，特别是醋类等酸性食品。高锌食物有助排除镉。此外，高钙和高硒食物亦有排镉效力。

镉 - 污染事件

浏阳镉污染

1、2009年8月的湖南浏阳市镇头镇镉污染，事源长沙湘和化工厂生产次氧化锌和硫酸锌但没有完善的排污设施。截止09年8月2日，该工厂被永久关闭。

2、1930-1960件代，日本富山县神通川流域部分镉污染。事源炼锌厂排放的含镉废水污染了周围的耕地和水源。

引用出處：

http://www.hudong.com/wiki/%E9%95%89

歡迎來到Bewise Inc.的世界，首先恭喜您來到這接受新的資訊讓產業更有競爭力，我們是提供專業刀具製造商，應對客戶高品質的刀具需求，我們可以協助客戶滿足您對產業的不同要求，我們有能力達到非常卓越的客戶需求品質，這是現有相關技術無法比擬的，我們成功的滿足了各行各業的要求，包括：精密HSS DIN切削刀具、協助客戶設計刀具流程、DIN or JIS 鎢鋼切削刀具設計、NAS986 NAS965 NAS897 NAS937orNAS907 航太切削刀具,NAS航太刀具設計、超高硬度的切削刀具、醫療配件刀具設計、複合式再研磨機、PCD地板專用企口鑽石組合刀具、粉末造粒成型機、主機版專用頂級電桿、PCBN刀具、PCD刀具、單晶刀具、PCD V-Cut刀、捨棄式圓鋸片組、粉末成型機、航空機械鉸刀、主機版專用頂級電感、’汽車業刀具設計、電子產業鑽石刀具、木工產業鑽石刀具、銑刀與切斷複合再研磨機、銑刀與鑽頭複合再研磨機、銑刀與螺絲攻複合再研磨機等等。我們的產品涵蓋了從民生刀具到工業級的刀具設計；從微細刀具到大型刀具；從小型生產到大型量產；全自動整合；我們的技術可提供您連續生產的效能，我們整體的服務及卓越的技術，恭迎您親自體驗！！

BW Bewise Inc. Willy Chen willy@tool-tool.com bw@tool-tool.com www.tool-tool.com skype:willy_chen_bw mobile:0937-618-190 Head &Administration Office No.13,Shiang Shang 2nd St., West Chiu Taichung,Taiwan 40356 http://www.tool-tool.com/ / FAX:+886 4 2471 4839 N.Branch 5F,No.460,Fu Shin North Rd.,Taipei,Taiwan S.Branch No.24,Sec.1,Chia Pu East Rd.,Taipao City,Chiayi Hsien,Taiwan

Welcome to BW tool world! We are an experienced tool maker specialized in cutting tools. We focus on what you need and endeavor to research the best cutter to satisfy users’ demand. Our customers involve wide range of industries, like mold & die, aerospace, electronic, machinery, etc. We are professional expert in cutting field. We would like to solve every problem from you. Please feel free to contact us, its our pleasure to serve for you. BW product including: cutting tool、aerospace tool .HSS DIN Cutting tool、Carbide end mills、Carbide cutting tool、NAS Cutting tool、NAS986 NAS965 NAS897 NAS937orNAS907 Cutting Tools,Carbide end mill、disc milling cutter,Aerospace cutting tool、hss drill’Фрезеры’Carbide drill、High speed steel、Compound Sharpener’Milling cutter、INDUCTORS FOR PCD’CVDD(Chemical Vapor Deposition Diamond )’PCBN (Polycrystalline Cubic Boron Nitride) ’Core drill、Tapered end mills、CVD Diamond Tools Inserts’PCD Edge-Beveling Cutter(Golden Finger’PCD V-Cutter’PCD Wood tools’PCD Cutting tools’PCD Circular Saw Blade’PVDD End Mills’diamond tool. INDUCTORS FOR PCD . POWDER FORMING MACHINE ‘Single Crystal Diamond ‘Metric end mills、Miniature end mills、Специальные режущие инструменты ‘Пустотелое сверло ‘Pilot reamer、Fraises’Fresas con mango’ PCD (Polycrystalline diamond) ‘Frese’POWDER FORMING MACHINE’Electronics cutter、Step drill、Metal cutting saw、Double margin drill、Gun barrel、Angle milling cutter、Carbide burrs、Carbide tipped cutter、Chamfering tool、IC card engraving cutter、Side cutter、Staple Cutter’PCD diamond cutter specialized in grooving floors’V-Cut PCD Circular Diamond Tipped Saw Blade with Indexable Insert’ PCD Diamond Tool’ Saw Blade with Indexable Insert’NAS tool、DIN or JIS tool、Special tool、Metal slitting saws、Shell end mills、Side and face milling cutters、Side chip clearance saws、Long end mills’end mill grinder’drill grinder’sharpener、Stub roughing end mills、Dovetail milling cutters、Carbide slot drills、Carbide torus cutters、Angel carbide end mills、Carbide torus cutters、Carbide ball-nosed slot drills、Mould cutter、Tool manufacturer.

Bewise Inc. www.tool-tool.com

ようこそＢｅｗｉｓｅ　Ｉｎｃ.の世界へお越し下さいませ、先ず御目出度たいのは新たな

情報を受け取って頂き、もっと各産業に競争力プラス展開。

弊社は専門なエンド・ミルの製造メーカーで、客先に色んな分野のニーズ、

豊富なパリエーションを満足させ、特にハイテク品質要求にサポート致します。

弊社は各領域に供給できる内容は：

（１）精密ＨＳＳエンド・ミルのＲ＆Ｄ

（２）Carbide Cutting tools設計

（３）鎢鋼エンド・ミル設計

（４）航空エンド・ミル設計

（５）超高硬度エンド・ミル

（６）ダイヤモンド・エンド・ミル

（７）医療用品エンド・ミル設計

（８）自動車部品＆材料加工向けエンド・ミル設計

弊社の製品の供給調達機能は：

（１）生活産業～ハイテク工業までのエンド・ミル設計

（２）ミクロ・エンド・ミル～大型エンド・ミル供給

（３）小Ｌｏｔ生産～大量発注対応供給

（４）オートメーション整備調達

（５）スポット対応～流れ生産対応

弊社の全般供給体制及び技術自慢の総合専門製造メーカーに貴方のご体験を御待ちしております。

Bewise Inc. talaşlı imalat sanayinde en fazla kullanılan ve üç eksende (x,y,z) talaş kaldırabilen freze takımlarından olan Parmak Freze imalatçısıdır. Çok geniş ürün yelpazesine sahip olan firmanın başlıca ürünlerini Karbür Parmak Frezeler, Kalıpçı Frezeleri, Kaba Talaş Frezeleri, Konik Alın Frezeler, Köşe Radyüs Frezeler, İki Ağızlı Kısa ve Uzun Küresel Frezeler, İç Bükey Frezeler vb. şeklinde sıralayabiliriz.

BW специализируется в научных исследованиях и разработках, и снабжаем самым высокотехнологичным карбидовым материалом для поставки режущих / фрезеровочных инструментов для почвы, воздушного пространства и электронной индустрии. В нашу основную продукцию входит твердый карбид / быстрорежущая сталь, а также двигатели, микроэлектрические дрели, IC картонорезальные машины, фрезы для гравирования, режущие пилы, фрезеры-расширители, фрезеры-расширители с резцом, дрели, резаки форм для шлицевого вала / звездочки роликовой цепи, и специальные нано инструменты. Пожалуйста, посетите сайт www.tool-tool.com для получения большей информации.

BW is specialized in R&D and sourcing the most advanced carbide material with high-tech coating to supply cutting / milling tool for mould & die, aero space and electronic industry. Our main products include solid carbide / HSS end mills, micro electronic drill, IC card cutter, engraving cutter, shell end mills, cutting saw, reamer, thread reamer, leading drill, involute gear cutter for spur wheel, rack and worm milling cutter, thread milling cutter, form cutters for spline shaft/roller chain sprocket, and special tool, with nano grade. Please visit our web www.tool-tool.com for more info.

Cadmium www.tool-tool.com

Cadmium ( /ˈkædmiəm/ KAD-mee-əm) is a chemical element with the symbol Cd and atomic number 48. The soft, bluish-white metal is chemically similar to the two other metals in group 12, zinc and mercury. Similar to zinc it prefers oxidation state +2 in most of its compounds and similar to mercury it shows a low melting point compared to transition metals. Cadmium and its congeners are not considered transition metals, in that they do not have partly filled d or f electron shells in the elemental or common oxidation states.[2] Average concentration in the earth’s crust is between 0.1 and 0.5 parts per million (ppm). It was discovered simultaneously by Stromeyer and Hermann, both in Germany, as an impurity in zinc carbonate.[3]

Cadmium occurs as a minor component in most zinc ores and therefore is a byproduct of zinc production. Cadmium was used for a long time as a pigment and for corrosion resistant plating on steel. Cadmium compounds were used to stabilize plastic. With the exception of its use in nickel-cadmium batteries and cadmium telluride solar panels, the use of cadmium is generally decreasing in its other applications. These declines have been due to competing technologies, cadmium’s toxicity in certain forms and concentration and resulting regulations.[4] Although cadmium is toxic, one enzyme, a carbonic anhydrase with cadmium as reactive center has been discovered.

Contents

[hide]

• 1 Characteristics
  • 1.1 Physical properties
  • 1.2 Chemical properties
  • 1.3 Isotopes
• 2 History
• 3 Occurrence
• 4 Extraction
• 5 Applications
  • 5.1 Batteries
  • 5.2 Other uses
  • 5.3 Historic uses
• 6 Biological role
  • 6.1 Neurological role
• 7 Toxicity
• 8 Product recalls
  • 8.1 Highbury Seats
  • 8.2 Jewelry
  • 8.3 McDonald's drinking glasses
• 9 See also
• 10 References
• 11 External links

[edit] Characteristics

[edit] Physical properties

Cadmium is a soft, malleable, ductile, bluish-white bivalent metal. It is similar in many respects to zinc but forms complex compounds.[5]

[edit] Chemical properties

See also Category: Cadmium compounds

The most common oxidation state of cadmium is +2, though rare examples of +1 can be found. Cadmium burns in air to form brown amorphous cadmium oxide (CdO). The crystalline form of the same compound is dark red and changes color when heated, similar to zinc oxide. Hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid and nitric acid dissolve cadmium by forming cadmium chloride (CdCl2) cadmium sulfate (CdSO4) or cadmium nitrate (Cd(NO3)2). The oxidation state +1 can be reached by dissolving cadmium in a mixture of cadmium chloride and aluminium chloride, forming the Cd22+ cation, which is similar to the Hg22+ cation in mercury(I) chloride.[5]

Cd + CdCl2 + 2 AlCl3 → Cd2[AlCl4]2

[edit] Isotopes

The cadmium-113 total cross section clearly showing the cadmium cutoff.

Main article: Isotopes of cadmium

Naturally occurring cadmium is composed of 8 isotopes. For two of them, natural radioactivity was observed, and three others are predicted to be radioactive but their decay is not observed, due to extremely long half-life times. The two natural radioactive isotopes are 113Cd (beta decay, half-life is 7.7 × 1015 years) and 116Cd (two-neutrino double beta decay, half-life is 2.9 × 1019 years). The other three are 106Cd, 108Cd (double electron capture), and 114Cd (double beta decay); only lower limits on their half-life times have been set. At least three isotopes - 110Cd, 111Cd, and 112Cd - are stable. Among the isotopes absent in natural cadmium, the most long-lived are 109Cd with a half-life of 462.6 days, and 115Cd with a half-life of 53.46 hours. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 2.5 hours, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 5 minutes. This element also has 8 known meta states, with the most stable being 113mCd (t½ = 14.1 years), 115mCd (t½ = 44.6 days), and 117mCd (t½ = 3.36 hours).

The known isotopes of cadmium range in atomic mass from 94.950 u (95Cd) to 131.946 u (132Cd). For isotopes lighter than 112 u, the primary decay mode is electron capture and the dominant decay product is element 47 (silver). Heavier isotopes decay mostly through beta emission producing element 49 (indium).

One isotope of cadmium, 113Cd, absorbs neutrons with very high probability if they have an energy below the cadmium cut-off and transmits them readily otherwise. The cadmium cut-off is about 0.5 eV.[6] Neutrons with energy below the cutoff are deemed slow neutrons, distinguishing them from intermediate and fast neutrons.

Cadmium is created via the long S-process in low-medium mass stars (.6 -> 10 solar masses), lasting thousands of years to do. It requires a silver atom to capture a neutron and then undergo beta decay.[citation needed]

[edit] History

Friedrich Stromeyer

Cadmium (Latin cadmia, Greek καδμεία meaning "calamine", a cadmium-bearing mixture of minerals, which was named after the Greek mythological character, Κάδμος Cadmus, the founder of Thebes) was discovered simultaneously by Friedrich Stromeyer[7] and Karl Samuel Leberecht Hermann, both in Germany, as an impurity in zinc carbonate.[4] Stromeyer found the new element as an impurity in zinc carbonate (calamine), and, for 100 years, Germany remained the only important producer of the metal. The metal was named after the Latin word for calamine, since the metal was found in this zinc compound. Stromeyer noted that some impure samples of calamine changed color when heated but pure calamine did not. He was persistent in studying these results and eventually isolated cadmium metal by roasting and reduction of the sulfide. Even though cadmium and its compounds may be toxic in certain forms and concentrations, the British Pharmaceutical Codex from 1907 states that cadmium iodide was used as a medication to treat "enlarged joints, scrofulous glands,[8] and chilblains".

In 1927, the International Conference on Weights and Measures redefined the meter in terms of a red cadmium spectral line (1 m = 1,553,164.13 wavelengths).[9] This definition has since been changed (see krypton).

After the industrial scale production of cadmium started in the 1930s and 1940s the major application was the coating of iron and steel to prevent corrosion.[4] In 1944, 62% and in 1956 59% of the cadmium in the United States was used for this purpose.[10] The second application was red, orange and yellow pigments based on sulfides and selenides of cadmium. In 1956, 24% of the cadmium used within the United States was used for this purpose.[10] The stabilizing effect of cadmium-containing chemicals (carboxylates such as the laureate and the stearate) on PVC led to a increased use of those compounds in the 1970s and 1980s. The use of cadmium in applications such as pigments, coatings, stabilizers and alloys declined due to environmental and health regulations in the 1980s and 1990s. In 2006, only 7% of total cadmium consumption was used for plating and coating and only 10% was used for pigments.[4] The decrease in consumption in other applications was made up by a growing demand of cadmium in nickel-cadmium batteries, which accounted for 81% of the cadmium consumption in the United States in 2006.[11]

[edit] Occurrence

Cadmium metal

See also Category: Cadmium minerals

Cadmium-containing ores are rare and are found to occur in small quantities. However, traces do naturally occur in phosphate, and have been shown to transmit in food through fertilizer application.[12] Greenockite (CdS), the only cadmium mineral of importance, is nearly always associated with sphalerite (ZnS). As a consequence, cadmium is produced mainly as a byproduct from mining, smelting, and refining sulfidic ores of zinc, and, to a lesser degree, lead and copper. Small amounts of cadmium, about 10% of consumption, are produced from secondary sources, mainly from dust generated by recycling iron and steel scrap. Production in the United States began in 1907, but it was not until after World War I that cadmium came into wide use.[13][14]

One place where metallic cadmium can be found is the Vilyuy River basin in Siberia.[15]

[edit] Extraction

World production trend

Cadmium output in 2005

In 2001, China was the top producer of cadmium with almost one-sixth world share closely followed by South Korea and Japan, reports the British Geological Survey.[16]

Cadmium is a common impurity in zinc ores, and it is most often isolated during the production of zinc. Some zinc ores concentrates from sulfidic zinc ores contain up to 1.4% of cadmium.[17] In 1970s, the output of cadmium was 6.5 pounds per ton of zinc.[17] Zinc sulfide ores are roasted in the presence of oxygen, converting the zinc sulfide to the oxide. Zinc metal is produced either by smelting the oxide with carbon or by electrolysis in sulfuric acid. Cadmium is isolated from the zinc metal by vacuum distillation if the zinc is smelted, or cadmium sulfate is precipitated out of the electrolysis solution.[14][18]

[edit] Applications

[edit] Batteries

Ni-Cd batteries

In 2009, 86% of all the cadmium is used in batteries, predominantly in rechargeable nickel-cadmium batteries. Nickel-cadmium cells have a nominal cell potential of 1.2 V. The cell consists of a positive nickel hydroxide electrode and a negative cadmium electrode plate separated by an alkaline electrolyte (potassium hydroxide). The European Union banned the use of cadmium in electronics in 2004 with several exceptions but reduced the allowed content of cadmium in electronics to 0.002%.[19]

[edit] Other uses

Violet light from a helium cadmium metal vapor laser. The highly monochromatic color arises from the 441.563 nm transition line of cadmium.

Train painted with cadmium orange

A photograph and representative spectrum of photoluminescence from colloidal CdSe quantum dots.

Most of cadmium which is not consumed in battery production is used mainly for cadmium pigments, coatings and plating. Examples of some uses include:

• In electroplating (6% cadmium).[20] Cadmium electroplating is widely used in aircraft industry due to the excellent corrosion resistance of cadmium-plated steel components. The coating is usually passivated by chromate salts.[citation needed]
• Helium-cadmium lasers are a popular source of blue-ultraviolet laser light. They operate either at 325 or 422 nm and are used in fluorescence microscopes and various laboratory experiment.[21]
• Cadmium is used as a barrier to control neutrons in nuclear fission.[20]
• The pressurized water reactor designed by Westinghouse Electric Company uses an alloy consisting of 80% silver, 15% indium, and 5% cadmium.[20]
• Cadmium oxide in black and white television phosphors and in the blue and green phosphors for color television picture tubes.[22]
• Cadmium sulfide (CdS) as a photoconductive surface coating for photocopier drums.[23]
• In paint pigments, cadmium forms various salts, with CdS being the most common. This sulfide is used as a yellow pigment. Cadmium selenide can be used as red pigment, commonly called cadmium red. To painters who work with the pigment, cadmium yellows, oranges, and reds are the most brilliant and long-lasting colors to use. In fact, during production, these colors are significantly toned down before they are ground with oils and binders, or blended into watercolors, gouaches, acrylics, and other paint and pigment formulations. Since these pigments are potentially toxic, it is recommended to use a barrier cream on the hands to prevent absorption through the skin when working with them[24] even though the amount of cadmium absorbed into the body through the skin is usually reported to be less than 1%.[citation needed]
• Cadmium selenide quantum dots emit bright luminescence under UV excitation (He-Cd laser, for example). The color of this luminescence can be green, yellow or red depending on the particle size. Colloidal solutions of those particles are used for imaging of biological tissues and solutions with a fluorescence microscope.[25]
• Cadmium is a component of some compound semiconductors, such as cadmium sulfide, cadmium selenide, and cadmium telluride, which can be used for light detection or solar cells. HgCdTe is sensitive to infrared[20] light and therefore may be utilized as an infrared detector or switch for example in remote control devices.
• In PVC as heat, light, and weathering stabilizers[20][26] although cadmium stabilizers have now been almost completely replaced with barium-zinc, calcium-zinc and organo-tin stabilizers.
• In molecular biology, cadmium is used to block voltage-dependent calcium channels from fluxing calcium ions, as well as in hypoxia research to stimulate proteasome-dependent degradation of Hif-1α.[27]

[edit] Historic uses

• In many kinds of solder.[20]
• In bearing alloys, due to a low coefficient of friction and very good fatigue resistance.[20]
• In some of the lowest-melting alloys, such as Wood's metal.[28]

[edit] Biological role

Cadmium has no known useful role in higher organisms.[29] A role for cadmium in lower lifeforms has recently been found. A cadmium-dependent carbonic anhydrase has been found in marine diatoms. Cadmium performs the same function as zinc in other anhydrases, but the diatoms live in environments with very low zinc concentrations and thus the biological system has utilized cadmium in place of zinc to perform that function normally carried out by zinc. The discovery was made using X-ray absorption fluorescence spectroscopy (XAFS), and cadmium was characterized by noting the energy of the X-rays that were absorbed.[30]

The highest concentration of cadmium has been found to be absorbed in the kidneys of humans, and up to about 30 mg of cadmium is commonly inhaled throughout childhood and adolescence. [31][32]

[edit] Neurological role

Cadmium can be used to block calcium channels in chicken neurons. (source:"Calcium channel block by cadmium in chicken sensory neurons" -- PNAS March 1, 1989 vol. 86 no. 5 1736-1740)

[edit] Toxicity

Main article: Cadmium poisoning

WHO international poison warning symbol

The most dangerous form of occupational exposure to cadmium is inhalation of fine dust and fumes, or ingestion of highly soluble cadmium compounds.[4] Inhalation of cadmium-containing fumes can result initially in metal fume fever but may progress to chemical pneumonitis, pulmonary edema, and death.[33]

Cadmium is also a potential environmental hazard. Human exposures to environmental cadmium are primarily the result of fossil fuel combustion, phosphate fertilizers, natural sources, iron and steel production, cement production and related activities, nonferrous metals production, and municipal solid waste incineration.[4] However, there have been a few instances of general population toxicity as the result of long-term exposure to cadmium in contaminated food and water. In the decades leading up to World War II, Japanese mining operations contaminated the Jinzū River with cadmium and traces of other toxic metals. As a consequence, cadmium accumulated in the rice crops growing along the riverbanks downstream of the mines. Some members of the local agricultural communities consuming the contaminated rice developed itai-itai disease and renal abnormalities, including proteinuria and glucosuria.[34] The victims of this poisoning were almost exclusively post-menopausal women with low iron and other mineral body stores. Similar general population cadmium exposures in other parts of the world have not resulted in the same health problems as long as the populations maintained sufficient iron and other mineral levels. Thus, while cadmium is a major factor in the Itai Itai disease in Japan, most researchers have concluded that it was one of several factors.[4] Cadmium is one of six substances banned by the European Union's Restriction on Hazardous Substances (RoHS) directive, which bans certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment but allows for certain exemptions and exclusions from the scope of the law.[35]

There has been research linking exposure to cadmium to lung and prostate cancer. However, there is still a substantial controversy about the carcinogenicity of cadmium in the scientific community. More recent studies suggest that arsenic rather than cadmium may lead to the increased lung cancer mortality rates. Furthermore, most data regarding the carcinogenicity of cadmium rely on research confounded by the presence of other carcinogenic substances.[4]

Tobacco smoking is the most important single source of cadmium exposure in the general population. It has been estimated that about 10% of the cadmium content of a cigarette is inhaled through smoking. The absorption of cadmium from the lungs is much more effective than that from the gut, and as much as 50% of the cadmium inhaled via cigarette smoke may be absorbed.[36]

On average, smokers have 4-5 times higher blood cadmium concentrations and 2-3 times higher kidney cadmium concentrations than non-smokers. Despite the high cadmium content in cigarette smoke, there seems to be little exposure to cadmium from passive smoking. No significant effect on blood cadmium concentrations could be detected in children exposed to environmental tobacco smoke.[37]

[edit] Product recalls

[edit] Highbury Seats

In May 2006, a sale of the seats from Arsenal F.C.'s old stadium, Highbury in London, England was cancelled after the seats were discovered to contain trace amounts of cadmium.[38]

[edit] Jewelry

Reports of high levels of cadmium use in children's jewelry in 2010 led to a US Consumer Product Safety Commission investigation. Twelve percent of the 103 items tested from New York, Ohio, Texas and California contained at least 10 percent cadmium, with a single item test claimed to be 91 percent cadmium.[39] The CPSC issued specific recall notices for cadmium content applying to jewelry sold by Claire's[40] and Wal-Mart[41] stores.

[edit] McDonald's drinking glasses

In June 2010 McDonald's voluntarily recalled more than 12 million promotional “Shrek Forever After 3D” Collectable Drinking Glasses due to concerns over cadmium levels in paint pigments used on the glassware.[42] The glasses were manufactured by ARC International, of Millville, NJ.[

引用出處：

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadmium

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